Nation building five southeast asian histories

Tai Lieu Chat Luong The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) was established as an autonomous organization in 1968 It is a regional centre dedicated to the study of socio-political, security and economic trends and developments in Southeast Asia and its wider geostrategic and economic environment The Institute’s research programmes are the Regional Economic Studies (RES, including ASEAN and APEC), Regional Strategic and Political Studies (RSPS), and Regional Social and Cultural Studies (RSCS) ISEAS Publications, an established academic press, has issued more than 1,000 books and journals It is the largest scholarly publisher of research about Southeast Asia from within the region ISEAS Publications works with many other academic and trade publishers and distributors to disseminate important research and analyses from and about Southeast Asia to the rest of the world History of Nation-Building Series INSTITUTE OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES Singapore First published in Singapore in 2005 by ISEAS Publications Institute of Southeast Asian Studies 30 Heng Mui Keng Terrace Pasir Panjang Singapore 119614 The series of Nation-Building Histories was made possible with the generous support of the Lee Foundation, Singapore and the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation for International Scholarly Exchange, Taipei All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies © 2005 Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore The responsibility for facts and opinions in this publication rests exclusively with the authors and their interpretations not necessarily reflect the views or the policy of the Institute or its supports ISEAS Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Nation-Building: five Southeast Asian histories / edited by Wang Gungwu Asia, Southeastern—History—1945– Asia, Southeastern—Historiography I Wang, Gungwu, 1930– DS526.7 S725 2005 ISBN 981-230-317-0 (soft cover) ISBN 981-230-320-0 (hard cover) Typeset by Superskill Graphics Pte Ltd Printed in Singapore by Oxford Graphic Printers Pte Ltd Contents Preface by Wang Gungwu The Contributors vii ix Chapter One Contemporary and National History: A Double Challenge Wang Gungwu Chapter Two Nation and State in Histories of Nation-Building, with Special Reference to Thailand Craig J Reynolds 21 Chapter Three Rethinking History and “Nation-Building” in the Philippines Caroline S Hau 39 Chapter Four Writing the History of Independent Indonesia Anthony Reid 69 Chapter Five Ethnicity in the Making of Malaysia Cheah Boon Kheng 91 Chapter Six Historians Writing Nations: Malaysian Contests Anthony Milner 117 Chapter Seven Writing Malaysia’s Contemporary History Lee Kam Hing 163 Chapter Eight Forging Malaysia and Singapore: Colonialism, Decolonization and Nation-Building Tony Stockwell 191 vi • Contemporary Nations: Five Southast Asian Histories Chapter Nine Nation-Building and the Singapore Story: Some Issues in the Study of Contemporary Singapore History Albert Lau 221 Chapter Ten Nation and Heritage Wang Gungwu 251 Index 279 vi Preface The essays in this volume are the product of a conference organized in Singapore by the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in September 2002: “Nation-building Histories: Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore” Altogether sixteen scholars were invited to take part in a twoday meeting that focused on these five countries, the founder members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) One volume, that on Malaysia by Cheah Boon Kheng, had already been published Some of the draft chapters of the other four volumes were circulated for the discussants to read and offer comments All the participants were invited to write up their thoughts, either on the work they had already done or read, or on the general problems of writing nation-building histories, especially of countries recently committed to the tasks of nation-building and issues of writing contemporary history in Southeast Asia In the end, Cheah Boon Kheng and seven of the discussants agreed to reflect on the questions that the conference had raised As editor, I included an essay on “Nation and Heritage” I had published earlier and wrote an introduction to place on record some of the broader issues that the whole exercise had helped to illuminate After the conference, I had summarized those questions that attracted most comments as follows: When does nation-building begin and how does it fit into the writing of contemporary history? How should historians treat the earlier pasts of each country and the nationalism that guided the nationbuilding task? Where did political culture come in, especially when dealing with modern challenges of class, secularism and ethnicity? What part does external or regional pressure play when the nations are still being built? When archival sources are not available, how should narrative, social science analyses and personal experience be handled? Each of the ten essays in this volume includes efforts to pose such questions with reference to one of the five countries It is hoped that their efforts will stimulate interest in the writing of similar histories for the other five members of ASEAN as well as arouse interest in an emerging regional consciousness that will be more than the sum of the ten national experiences themselves 15 May 2005 Wang Gungwu East Asian Institute National University of Singapore vii The Contributors Cheah Boon Kheng was Professor of History, Universiti Sains Malaysia Carol Hau is Associate Professor, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Japan Albert Lau is Associate Professor, Department of History, National University of Singapore Lee Kam Hing was Professor of History, University of Malaysia and is now Research Editor, Star Publications (M) Bhd, Malaysia Anthony Milner is Professor and Dean, Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University Anthony J.S Reid is Director, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore Craig J Reynolds is Reader, Centre for Asian Societies and Histories, Australian National University Anthony Stockwell is Professor of Imperial and Commonwealth History, Royal Holloway, University of London Wang Gungwu is Director, East Asian Institute, National University of Singapore Contemporary and National History • C H A P T E R O N E Contemporary and National History: A Double Challenge Wang Gungwu A T THE International Conference of Historians of Asia (IAHA) in Bangkok (1996), there was a panel on nation-building at which it was debated whether it was time for historians to write nation-building histories for Southeast Asia This appeared rather unadventurous because in 1996 there was much more debate about globalization and transnational developments, even speculation about the end of nation-states It was pointed out that the break-up of colonial empires in Asia had happened a long while back Unlike the new nations after the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires, those that were established after World War II faced a world that was changing much faster than it has ever done Since the 1950s, new global markets have flourished, new technologies have reached out in all directions and new social forces have been released It was surely more important to examine the new emerging factors in society that were transforming human lives beyond recognition In many countries, these had begun to render the idea of nation-states increasingly irrelevant On the other hand, only a few years earlier, German reunification and the dissolution of the Soviet Empire had led to a new wave of nationbuilding in Central and Eastern Europe as well as Central Asia And what a dramatic challenge that has been to the Western European experiment in crossing national borders to build new kinds of communities Since then, the tension between a European Union seeking to double its size and the Nation and Heritage • 273 20 G McT Kahin, ed Government and Politics in Southeast Asia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1959) 21 Hans Kohn, Nationalism: Its Meaning and History 22 John Armstrong, Nations before Nationalism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982); Raymond Carr, Spain, 1808–1939 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966); Tilly, The Formation of National States in Western Europe 23 Hans Kohn, Prelude to Nation-States: The French and German Experience; Richard Bessel, ed., Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996) 24 Hugh Seton-Watson, Eastern Europe between the Wars (Cambridge: The University Press, 1945); R.H Seton-Watson, A History of the Czechs and Slovaks (London: Hutchinson, 1943) 25 Feith and Castles, ed., Indonesian Political Thinking, 1945–1965; William L Holland, ed., Asian Nationalism and the West (New York: Macmillan, 1953); Urmilla Phadnis, Ethnicity and Nation-Building in South Asia (Delhi: Sage, 1990) 26 Rupert Emerson, Lennox Mills and Virginia Thompson, Government and Nationalism in Southeast Asia (New York: Institute of Pacific Relations, 1942) 27 W McMahon Ball, Nationalism and Communism in Southeast Asia (Carlton: Melbourne University Press, 1952) 28 Rupert Emerson, Malaysia: A Study in Direct and Indirect Rule (New York: Macmillan, 1937); and From Empire to Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960) 29 Agoncillo, Filipino Nationalism; Teodoro A Agoncillo, The Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1956); Corpuz, The Roots of the Filipino Nation; Reynaldo C Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution; Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840–1910 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979) 30 George McT Kahin, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1952); Taufik Abdullah, ed., The Heartbeat of the Indonesian Revolution (Jakarta: P.T Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 1997); Taufik Abdullah, ed., Sejarah Lokal di Indonesia: Kumpulan Tulisan (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1985); Benedict Anderson, Java in a Time of Revolution: Occupation and Resistance, 1944–1946 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972); Sartono Kartodirdjo, Modern Indonesia: Tradition and Transformation, a Socio-Historical Perspective (Yogyakarta: Gadja Mada University Press, 1984) 31 K.J Ratnam, Communalism and the Political Process in Malaya (Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press, 1965); William Roff, The Origins of Malay Nationalism (Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press, 1967); Chan Heng Chee, NationBuilding in Southeast Asia: The Singapore Case (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1971); Khoo Kay Kim, “The Beginnings of Political Extremism, 274 • Wang Gungwu 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 1915–1935”, Ph.D thesis, Department of History, University of Malaya, 1973; Cheah Boon Kheng, The Masked Comrades: A Study of the Communist United Front in Malaya, 1945–1948 (Singapore: Times Books, 1979); S Husin Ali , ed., Ethnicity, Class and Development: Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur: Persatuan Sains Sosial Malaysia, 1984); Gordon P Means, Malaysian Politics (London: University of London Press, 1970); R.S Milne and K.J Ratnam, Malaysia: New States in a New Nation (London: Frank Cass, 1974) Lucian W Pye, Politics, Personality and Nation Building: Burma’s Search for Identity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962); Josef Silverstein, ed., Burmese Politics: The Dilemma of National Unity (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1980); Robert H Taylor, The State in Burma (London: Hurst, 1987) E Herbert Norman, Japan’s Emergence as a Modern State: Political and Economic Problems of the Meiji Period (New York: Institute of Pacific Relations, 1940); Delmer M Brown, Nationalism in Japan: An Introductory Historical Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1955) Agoncillo, The Revolt of the Masses; Teresita Ang See, Chinese in the Philippines: Problems and Perspectives (Manila: Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, 1997); Josefa Saniel, Japan and the Philippines, 1868–1898 (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1962) Charles F Keyes, Thailand: Buddhist Kingdom as Modern Nation-State (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989); Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994); Vichitvong Na Pombhejara, ed., Readings in Thailand’s Political Economy (Bangkok: Bangkok Printing Enterprise, 1978); David K Wyatt, Politics of Reform in Thailand: Education in the Reign of King Chulalongkorn (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969) Henry McAleavy, Black Flags in Vietnam: The Story of a Chinese Intervention (London: Allen and Unwin, 1968); David Marr, Vietnamese Anticolonialism, 1885– 1925 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971) David Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920–1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981); Hue Tam Ho Tai, Radicalism and the Origins of the Vietnamese Revolution (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Willaim J Duiker, Ho Chi Minh (Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 2000) Huynh Kim Khanh, Vietnamese Communism, 1925–1945 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982); Nguyen Khac Vien, Tradition and Revolution in Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974) For a recent study that connects some of the extensive Vietnamese links with other parts of Southeast Asia, Chiristopher E Goscha, Thailand and the Southeast Asian Networks of the Vietnamese Revolution, 1885–1954 (London: Curzon, 1999) Nation and Heritage • 275 39 Josef Silverstein, Southeast Asia in World War II: Four Essays (New Haven: Southeast Asian Studies, Yale University Press, 1966); Steinberg et al., In Search of Southeast Asia; Tinker, The Union of Burma; Trager, Burma: From Kingdom to Republic 40 Stephen Leong Mun Yoon, “Sources, Agencies, and Manifestations of Overseas Chinese Nationalism in Malaya, 1937–1941”, Ph.D thesis, University of California Los Angeles, 1976; Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1978; Yoji Akashi, The Nanyang Chinese National Salvation Movement, 1937–1941 (Lawrence: Centre for East Asian Studies, University of Kansas, 1970); Peter Duus; Ramon Myers and Mark R Peattie, eds., The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931–1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996) 41 Silverstein, ed., Burmese Politics 42 Anderson, Java in a Time of Revolution; Harry J Benda, The Crescent and the Rising Sun: Indonesia Islam under the Japanese Occupation, 1942–1945 (The Hague: W van Hoeve, 1958); Harry J Benda, ed., Japanese Military Administration in Indonesia: Selected Documents (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1965) 43 Ahmad Boestaman, Dr Burhanuddin: Putera Setia Melayu Raya (Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Kejora, 1972); Ariffin Omar, Bangsa Melayu: Malay Concepts of Democracy and Community, 1945–1950 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993); Cheah Boon Kheng, The Masked Comrades; R.K Vasil, Politics in a Plural Society, (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1971); Yeo Kim Wah, Political Development in Singapore, 1945–1955 (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1973) 44 Wang Gungwu, China and the Chinese Overseas (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1991) 45 Wang Gungwu, “Questions of Identity during the Qing Dynasty”, Paper presented to the 3rd International Sinology Conference, Taipei, 2000 46 Wang Gungwu, The Revival of Chinese Nationalism (Leiden: International Institute for Asian Studies, 1996) (Collected in the volume as chapter 8) 47 Akashi, The Nanyang Chinese National Salvation Movement; Leong, “Sources, Agencies, and Manifestations of Overseas Chinese Nationalism in Malaya”; C.F Yong, Tan Kah-Kee: The Making of an Overseas Chinese Legend (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1987); C.F Yong and R B McKenna, The Kuomintang Movement in British Malaya, 1912–1949 (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1990) 48 Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press); Masao Maruyama, Nationalism in Postwar 276 • Wang Gungwu 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 Japan (Tokyo: Institute of Pacific Relations, 1950); Jonathan Unger, ed., Chinese Nationalism (New York: M.E Sharpe, 1996) Michael Antolik, ASEAN and the Diplomacy of Accommodation (Armonk, New York: M.E Sharpe, 1990); Dewi Fortuna Anwar, Indonesia in ASEAN: Foreign Policy and Regionalism (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1994); Russell H Fifield, The Diplomacy of Southeast Asia, 1954–1958 (New York: Harper, 1958) Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System, AD 1250–1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-system, vols (New York: Academic Press, 1974, 1980, 1989) John K Galbraith, The Great Crash, 1929 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1955); John Arthur Garraty, The Great Depression (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986) Ian Brown, “Rural Distress in Southeast Asia during the World Depression of the Early 1930s: A Preliminary Reexamination”, Journal of Asian Studies 45, no (1986): 995–1026; Ronald Dore and Radha Sinha, eds., Japan and World Depression: Then and Now, Essays in Memory of E.F Penrose, New York: St Martin’s Press, 1987; J.T.M van Laanen, The World Depression (1929–1935) and the Indigenous Economy in Netherlands India (Townsville, Queensland: James Cook University of North Queensland, 1982) Laurence W Martin, ed., Neutralism and Nonalignment: The New States in World Affairs (New York: Praeger, 1962) Stanley S Bedlington, Malaysia and Singapore: The Building of New States (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978); Richard Clutterbuck, Conflict and Violence in Singapore and Malaysia, 1945–1983 (Singapore: Graham Brash, 1984); Khoo Kay Kim and Adnan Hj Nawang, eds., Darurat, 1948–1960 (Kuala Lumpur: Muzium Angkatan Tentera, 1984); Lee Kuan Yew, The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew (Singapore: Times Editions, 1998); Nicholas Tarling, Nations and States in Southeast Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988) R Nagi, ASEAN: 20 Years, A Comprehensive Documentation (New Delhi: Lancers Books, 1989); Wang Gungwu, “Nation Formation and Regionalism in Southeast Asia”, in South Asia Pacific Crisis: National Development and the World Community, edited by Margaret Grant (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1964), pp 125–35, 258–72 Wang, “Nation Formation and Regionalism in Southeast Asia” Bessel, ed., Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany; Eugene Kamenka, ed., Nationalism, the Nature and Evolution of an Idea (London: Edward Arnold, 1976) Nation and Heritage • 277 58 J Buenker and L Rafner, eds., Multiculturalism in the United States: A Comparative Guide to Acculturation and Ethnicity (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992); Nathan Glazer and D.P Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1963) 59 A.J Fry and Ch Forceville, eds., Canadian Mosaic: Essays on Multiculturalism (Amsterdam: Free University Press, 1998); David Goodman, D.J O’Hearn and Chris Wallace-Crabbe, eds., Multicultural Australia: The Challenges of Change (Newham, Victoria: Scribe, 1991) 60 Richard Caplan and John Feffer, Europe’s New Nationalism: States and Minorities in Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Russell F Farnen, ed., Nationalism, Ethnicity, and Identity: Cross National and Comparative Perspectives (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1994); Gerard Noiriel, The French Melting Pot: Immigration, Citizenship, and National Identity (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Tariq Modood and Pnina Werbner, eds., The Politics of Multiculturalism in the New Europe: Racism, Identity, and Community (New York: Zed Books, 1977) 61 Mahathir Mohamad, The Malay Dilemma (Kuala Lumpur: Federal Publications, 1970); Anwar Ibrahim, The Asian Renaissance (Singapore: Times Books International, 1996); Erwin Rosenthal, Islam and the Modern National State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965); Bassam Tibi, Arab Nationalism: A Critical Enquiry (trans, and ed Marion Farouk-Slugett and Peter Slugett) (London: Macmillan, 1981) Index • 279 Index Bangkok Democracy monument, 24 Bang Rachan defence, 29 Bangsa Malaysia, 127, 182, 184 bangsa Melayu development, 137 Bangsa Moro Rebellion, 51 Barisan Sosialis, 230 Barraclough, Geoffrey, 13, 168 Bonifacio, Andres, 120 British defence commitments, 202 British Parliament Foreign Jurisdiction Act, 98 Brunei entry into Malaysia, 202 Buddhist monastery inscription in stone, 10 Bhumipol Adulyadej, King, bureaucratic systems effect on data generated, 13 Burma ‘enemy’ of Thailand, 29 Buyung Adil, 152 A.B Lapian, 71 Abdul Hadi bin Haji Hasan, 140 Abdurrachman Surjomihardjo, 71 Abinales, Patricio, 50 Ahmad Boestaman, 146 Anderson, Benedict, 7, 94, 252 Anhar Gonggong, 83, 85 Anglo-American relations damaged, 208 Anglo-Malayan Defence Arrangement, 198 anti-colonialism, 251 common experience, anti-Manchu movement, 263 Arena Wati, 136, 139 Arifin C Noer, 81 Arroyo, Gloria Macapagal, 57 Arrung Palaka, 72 Asian values relevance, 14 Assembly of the Poor, 35 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 2, 268 Asvi Warman Adam, 84 Atlantic Charter, 195 Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao, 51 Central Asia nation building, Chai-anan Samudavanija, 32 Cham empire, 10 chat definition of, 26 Chatterjee, Partha, 22 Badawi, Ahmad, 185 Bahasa Indonesia, 70 Baker, Herbert, 195 Bambang Purwanto, 85 279 280 • Index Cheah Boon Kheng, 8, 242 Chico River Basin Development Project, 53 China Philippines, diplomatic relations with, 53 Tai peoples, 35 Chinese Indonesia, in, 81 Malaysian general elections, power in, 107 Philippines, in, 50, 52, 53 Chinese Exclusion Act 1882, 52 Chinese kapitan, 186 Chinese nationalism Philippines, effect in 52 Southeast Asia, effect in, 263 Chinese political consciousness, 169 Chinese republican movement effect in Thailand, 27 Chulalongkorn, King, 26 Clandestine Communist Organization, 204 Cobbold Report, 204 Cold War changing regional circumstances, 268 effects of, 178, 196 colonialism impact, 118 state-building, role in, 191–193 Colonial Office records, 166 Commonwealth Relations Office, 198 Communist Party (PKI), 74 Communist Party of Philippines, 53 Communist Party of Thailand, 35 contemporary history nation building process, 11 practical requirements, role of, 91 Cordillera People’s Alliance and Regional Autonomy, 53 Cordillera People’s Liberation Army, 54 Cornell paper, 80 Croce, Benedetto, 91 currency speculators, 180 Democracy monument Bangkok, in, 24 Dhamma, 26 Dhanabalan, S, 224 dominant ethnie model, 113 Dutch colonialism, 255, 256 East Asian Co-prosperity Sphere, 33 East Timor, 82, 84 Emergency, 124, 143, 146, 178, 205 epigraphic documents, 10 Estrada, Joseph call to overseas Filipino workers, 57 ethnicity effect on nationalism, 112 ethnic interests Malaysia, in, 107–110 ethnic minorities Philippines, experience in, 54 ethnie, 97, 98 Eber, John, 182 Elton, Professor Geoffrey, 237 Europe nation building, European imperial powers colonialism, impact of, 118 creation of territorial nations, 97 European Union, Farish A Noor, 242 Federation of Malaya, 96, 99 agreement, 100, 101 Index • 281 Federation of Malaysia separation of Singapore, Foreign Jurisdiction Act, 98 Foucault, Michel, 30 French general elections, 112 Fujio Hara Malaysian Chinese Association, study of, 166 Gaddis, John Lewis, 13 Germany reunification, Ghazali Shafie, Tan Sri, 194 globalization increased international trade, 179 new challenges, 177 Goh Chok Tong, 229 Goh Keng Swee, 233, 235 Goode, Sir William, 203 Guha, Ranajit, 22 Gurney, Henry, 167 Han dynasty, 11 Hassan Mohammad Tiro, 72 Hau, Caroline, 131 hikayat, 12 Hindu-Buddhist chronicles, historians challenges facing, contemporary, 236, 237 dilemma, role, 163, 164 sources, requires good, 241 historical emplotment Filipino past, of, 120 History Centre of the Armed Forces, 74 history, contemporary, see contemporary history Harun Idris, Dato corruption charges, 165 Hong, Lysa, 222, 238 Hussein Onn, 126, 164 drop in popularity, 181 Ibrahim Yaakub, 144, 145 Igorotlandia, 53 Ileto, Reynaldo, 42, 119 analysis of political oratory, 46 History of Nation Building in the Philippines, 43, 44, 47, 48 interpretations of emancipation, 44 national textbook history, views on, 46 question of “excess”, 48 view on role of writings, 45 Indian National Congress, 261 Indonesia, A.B Lapian, 71, 85 Abdurrachman Surjomihardjo, 71 accountability for suppressions, 81 Aceh, 75, 76, 77, 84 Anhar Gonggong, 83, 85 Arrung Palaka, 72 Asvi Warman Adam, 84 Bambang Purwanto, 85 Chinese minority, 81 Communist Party (PKI), 74, 79, 80 Constitution, 75, 79 cult of nationalist heroes, 73 Daud Beureu’eh, 75 democracy, dealing with, 77–79 Dutch language, 70 Dutch rule, 72 East Timor, 82, 84 Guided Democracy, 75, 78 Hassan Mohammad Tiro, 72, 75, 76, 77 282 • Index History Centre of the Armed Forces, 74 History of National Struggle, 74 history, nationalist writing of, 73 immigrant communities, 181 mass killings, 80 Megawati, 85 Mestika Zed, 85 Nugroho Notosusanto, 73 official history, development of, 73 Pancasila, 75 Pramoedya Ananta Toer, 84 pro-Sukarno coup, 79 resistance movements, 72 R.Z Keirissa, 71 Rommel Cumaring, 85 Sartono Kartodirdjo, 70 school texts, 78, 82 Seventh National history Conference, 85 Slamet Soetrisno, 85 Suharto, 73 studying of History, 71 Tan Malaka, 70, 84 Taufik Abdullah, 85 Untung coup attempt, 83 Indonesian revolution, 14 International Conference of Historians of Asia (IAHA), 1, International Malay Secretariat, 150 Iran bilateral labour agreement with Philippines, 55 Islamic fundamentalism, 187 Islamic groups calls for religious laws, 173 Institute of Pacific Relations Report, 258 Japan defeat of Qing empire, 259 militarism, 264 Japanese Occupation Malaysia, in, 124, 134 Philippines, in, 50 Java-Sumatra kingdoms, 10 Jayakumar, S, Re, 227 Jessy, Joginder Singh, 129 Jit Poumisak, 34 Johor, history of, 151 Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Society, Kelantan, history of, 152 Kesatuan Melayu Muda (KMM), 142 Khmer empire, 10 Khoo Boo Teik, 183 Konfrontasi, 174 Confrontation, 205, 208, 210 Kongsakon Kawinrawikun, 30 Laos Tai peoples, 35 Lau, Albert, Laurel, Jose, 45, 47 League of Nations, 96 Lee Hsien Loong, 226, 232 Lee Kuan Yew, 193, 237 memoirs, 229 Lee Siew Choh, 230, 239 Liang Qichao, 261 Lim Chin Siong, 238 Loh Kah Seng, 231 Loke Yew, 170 Luang Wichit Wathakan, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 118d Index • 283 Mahathir Mohamad, Dr drop in popularity, 181 English, policy on use of, 108 ethnic support, reliance on, 109 prestige projects, use of, 126 Magsaysay, President, 120, 121 Majallah Guru, 123 Malayo-Javanese chronicles, Malaya population, 134 Malay annals, 140 Malay mass protest, 184 Malayan Communist Party, 197 Malayan Union, 98, 129 dissolution, 100 opposition, 135, 137 Malay ethno-nationalism, 104–106 Malay hikayat, 124 Malay nationalism, 169 implementing common language, 172 parameters, 109, 110, 111 potency in community, 127 Malay Nationalist Party (MNP), 144, 145 Malay radicalism, 156 Malays independent entrepreneurial class, lack of, 172 Malaysia, British role in nationalism, 128–131, 136 bumiputra, 211 Burhanuddin Al-helmy, 92 Chinese, role of voters, 107 Chinese interests, 177 Communist Party of Malaya, 92 components, 97 contemporary history, 164, 165 Constitution, 173 Council of State, 101 cultural assimilation, lack of, 105 cultural heritage, 122 cultural legitimacy, 138 demographic changes, 177 early leaders, lack of attention to, 164 economic growth, 175 Emergency, 124, 143 English, use of, 108 ethnic interests, accommodating, 107–110 ethnicity, role of, 113 ethnic polarization, 186 Federation of Malaya, 96, 99, 100, 101 historic bargain, 125, 132, 144, 149 Hussein Onn, 126, 164 immigrants, influx, 170 Islamic civilization, impact of, 153 “Islamic” state, 93, 111 Islamist vision, 154 Japanese Occupation, 124, 134 Kelantan uprising, 141 Mahathir Mohamad, Dr, 93, 94 Malayan Union, 98, 100 Malay-Chinese relationship, 143 Malay medium education, 175 Malacca, historic role, 130 Melayu Raya, 127 Merdeka, attainment of, 136 multi-culturalism, 103 nationalism, 104–106 New Economic Policy, 110 Official Secrets Act, 166 Onn bin Jaafar, Dato, 92, 142, 145 284 • Index Pahang uprising, 141 plural society, problem of, 123 population statistics, 138 Prime Minister role of, 106, 107 PUTERA-AMCJA, 102 Rajah Chulan, 142 Reid Constitution, 93 religion, role of, 111 remains of British colony, Singapore, separation of, 124, 209 social contract, 93, 111, 125, 170 State Executive Council, 100 sultans, surrendering jurisdiction of, 98, 147, 148, 149 Suqui (The Chinese Association Election Appeals Committee), 94 Tanah Melayu, 131 Templar, Sir Gerald, 129 traditional society, destruction of, 97 Trengganu uprising, 141 Tunku Abdul Rahman, 102 Tun Abdul Razak, 106 UMNO-MCA-MIC Alliance, 101 UMNO-PAS rivalry, 110 United Malays National Organization (UMNO), 100, 107 Wang Gungwu, 104 Za’aba, 123 Malaysia agreement, 207 Malaysian Cultural Congress, 126 Manila Summit, 204 Manning, Clark, 118 Marsillam Simanjuntak, 79 Maswari Rosdi, 141, 144 May 13 riots, 156 May, Ronald Philippines, observance of, 54 McNeill, William, 222, 223 Megawati, 85 Melaka, 140 historic role, 130 kingdom, 139 sultanate of, 133 Melayu Raya, 127, 137 Mestika Zed, 85 Michelet, Jules, 118 Middle East new opportunities, 178 oil boom, effect of, 56 Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act, 58 Mindanao, 51 minzu, 170 Mohamad Maidin, 239 monarchy symbol of nation, 25 moral law, 26 Moro identity mass education, role of, 51 Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), 51 multi-culturalism Malaysia, in, 103 Multi-ethnic nationalism Malaysia, in, 104 Muslim separatist movement, 49, 51 Muslims Philippines, in, 50, 51 Myanmar Tai peoples, 35 Nair, Devan, 224, 237 Najib Tun Razak, 234 Naning War, 141, 142 nation definition, 23 interdependence with state, 24 nation-state importance, 117 Index • 285 National Democratic Front Philippines, in, 53 national history nation’s beginnings, tracing, national sovereignty importance, nationalist movements first half of twentieth century, sources of insipiration, 262 nation building, 13–15, 252 alternative sources, 180 conscious effort, 168 history project, 253 importance, 196 post-colonial territories, Thailand, 21–38 nation-building architects Thailand, 29 nationalist slogans translation into policies, 13 nations without states, 253 Navari, Cornelia, 94, 95, 97 Netherlands East Indies, New Economic Policy, 110, 174, 179 Nik Abd Aziz Hj Nik Hassan, 153 Nugroho Notosusanto, 73, 81 Sejarah Nasional Indonesia, 79 Official Secrets Act, 166 Omohundro, John, 52 Onn bin Jaafar, Dato, 92, 142, 145 operation Cold Store, 204 oral transmission dependence in Southeast Asia, 12 overseas Filipino workers, 55, 56, 57 alienation, 57, 58 Japan, experience in, 58 PAS, 153, 154 Pancasila, 75 Pangkor Treaty, 131 Partai Ra’ayat Brunei, 197 Peasants Federation of Thailand, 35 People’s Action Party, 204 Perak sultanate, 151 Perak War, 141 Perso-Arab tarikh, arrival in Southeast Asia, 12 Philippines, 4, 254 Abinales, Patricio, see Abinales, Patricio American colonial regime, 50 anti-colonial war, 43 Arroyo, Gloria Macapagal, see Arroyo, Gloria Macapagal Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao, 51 Catholic religion, role of, 48, 49 Chinese, position of, 52 contemporary history, 40, 42 Cordillera activists, 53 democratization of politics, 41 Estrada, Joseph, see Estrada, Joseph ethnic minority groups, 50 first chance at independence, geo body, territorial integrity of, 40 Igorotlandia, 53 Ileto, Reynaldo, see Ileto, Reynaldo Iran, bilateral labour agreement with, 55 Japanese occupation, 50 Laurel, Jose, see Laurel, Jose modernization, 40 Ministry of Tourism, 53 Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), 51 Muslim communal identity, 50 Muslim separatist movement, 49, 51 nation-building, 44, 60 286 • Index nationalist movement of late 19th century, 119 New Labour Code, 54 Omohundro, John, see Omohundro, John Overseas Filipino Workers, 55, 56 Philippine–American war, 49 post-colonial national agenda, 42 Presidential Assistant on National Minorities, 53 Ramos, Fidel, 58 social divisions, 49 social stratification, new form of, 41, 42 state and society, relationship between, 48 training individuals with nationbuilding, 41 Philippine–American war, 49 Plaek Phibunsongkhram, 28 plural society Malaysia, problem of, 123 Poulgrain, Greg, 205 Presidential Assistant on National Minorities Philippines, in, 53 Prince-Patriarch Wachirayan Warorot, 27 ‘proteinism’ campaign Thailand, in, 31 Puthucheary, James, 182 Putera-All-Malayan Council of Joint Action, 171 Quirino, Elpido, 47, 121 race riots causation, 233 Rajah Chulan, 142 Rajaratnam, 224, 225, 227, 238 recording traditions, Reid Commission for Malaya, 198 Reid Constitutional Commission, 101, 102 religion role in Malaysia, 111 Rizal, Jose, 254 Rommel Cumaring, 85 Roxas, Manuel, 47 Rustam Sani, 242 R.Z Keirissa, 71 Sabah non-Muslim bumiputras, 176 Saichon Satayanurak, 32 sammakhi, 27 Sandys, Duncan, 204 Sartono Kartodirdjo, 70 school textbooks debates in Thailand, 24 Scott, Joan W., 39 sejarah, 12 Sejarah Nasional Indonesia, 79 rewriting, 83 Seventh National history Conference, 85 sha’ir, 12 Shamsul Baharin, 131, 135 Shlaim, Avi, 191 Singapore, attracting multi-national companies, 213 contemporary history, 221–246 culture of self reliance, 213 nation-building, 212 national education, 228, 230 national identity, development of, 244 Index • 287 primary school curriculum, 224 remains of British colony, separation from Malaya, 9, 103, 124, 211 Sino-Vietnamese annals, Sino-Vietnamese tradition inspiration from Spring and Autumn State records, 11 Slamet Soetrisno, 85 Smith, Anthony, 112, 113 Soviet empire dissolution, South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), 198, 268 Spring and Autumn State records, 11 Sri Harsavarman, 10 Sri Lanka dominant ethnie model, 113 Srivijaya empire, 133 state definition, 23 interdependence with nation, 24 Subaltern Studies group, 22 Suhara Salim, 141, 144 Suharto, 73 Sukarno cult of nationalist heroes, 73 Guided Democracy, 75, 78 Sultan Idris Training College, 140 Sultan of Brunei Malaysia proposal, praise for, 138 Sumatran rebellion, 205 Sunait Chutinthranond, 29 Syed Hamid Albar, 234, 242 Tai peoples, 35 Tanah Melayu, 131 Tang dynasty, 11 Tan Cheng Lock, 171, 182 Tan Liok Ee, 170 Tan Malaka, 70, 84 Tarling, Nicholas, 243 Taufik Abdullah, 85 Taylor, Jean, 74 Tawarikh Melayu, 123 Templar, Sir Gerald, 129 Tentera Negara Kalimantan Utara, 204 Teo Chee Hean, 228, 245 Thailand, Bhumipol Adulyadej, King, Burma, relationship with, 29 Chai-anan Samudavanija, 32 Chakri Royal family, 260 chat, definition of, 26 Chinese republican movement, effect of, 27 Chulalongkorn, King, 26 defence of Bang Rachan, 29 Dhamma, 26 Jit Poumisak, 34 Kongsakon Kawinrawikun, 30 Luang Wichit Wathakan, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 military regime, 25 modern phase of nation-building, monarchy as symbol of nation, 25 moral law, 26 nation-building architects, 29 northern mainland, 34 origins of nation-building, 26 Plaek Phibunsongkhram, 28 Prince-Patriarch Wachirayan Warorot, 27 ‘proteinism’ campaign, 31 Saichon Satayanurak, 32 sammakhi, 27 school textbooks, debates surrounding, 24 288 • Index Sunait Chutinthranond, 29 Thianwan, 27 Vajiravudh, King, 27 Thianwan, 27 thirty-year rule documents in British archives, 240 Tosh, John, 244 Tun Abdul Razak, 106, 126 Tunku Abdul Rahman, 102, 105, 126, 171, 174, 193, 206 dilemma concerning multi-ethnicity, 104 drop in popularity, 181 United Malays National Organization (UMNO), 100, 233 declared illegal, 107 formation, 135 nation-building process, dominating, 186 UMNO-MCA-MIC Alliance, 101, 129 United Nations Organisation acceptance of Indonesia, 257 emphasis on ethnicity, 96 United Nations Security Council, 200 United States of America distinguishing itself from other powers, 255 involvement as a superpower, 269 multi-culturalism, 270 war with Spain, 254 Vajiravudh, King, 27 Vietnam nationalists, 261 records kept, 12 Waddell, Sir Alexander, 203 Wang Gungwu, 104, 127, 128, 163 Wan Shamshuddin, 136, 139 Wilkinson, R J, 131 Winstedt, Richard, 123 Wong Lin Ken, 243 world systems, 266 Wright, Gordon, 237 Yap Ah Loy, 170 Yap, Jimmy, 222 Yeo, George, 227, 245 Za’aba, 123