Principles of air quality management

Tai Lieu Chat Luong 7099_C000.fm Page i Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM PRINCIPLES OF Air Quality Management SECOND EDITION 7099_C000.fm Page ii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM 7099_C000.fm Page iii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM PRINCIPLES OF Air Quality Management SECOND EDITION Roger D Griffin Boca Raton London New York CRC is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business 7099_C000.fm Page iv Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-7099-X (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-7099-1 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated A wide variety of references are listed Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Griffin, Roger D Principles of air quality management / Roger D Griffin 2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-8493-7099-X (alk paper) Air quality management I Title TD883.G78 2006 363.739’2 dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com 2006045606 7099_C000.fm Page v Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM Dedication Still dedicated to those who seek the Truth in all things, and to Him Who is 7099_C000.fm Page vi Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM 7099_C000.fm Page vii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM Preface to the Second Edition In the years since the first edition, we have seen new trends that this author did not think possible when he began his environmental career in 1969 Today there are far fewer “smog alerts,” far fewer acute-health impacts, a far greater acceptance of clean fuels and clean technologies, new engine systems, and a far greater understanding of the sources of air emissions — both natural and man-made (Air quality improvements are detailed in Chapter 10.) On an international scale, air quality issues being addressed include the concern for indoor air quality in developing nations, the push for clean fuels worldwide, and the search for newer, less polluting technologies for industry and control systems It is worth noting that the stratospheric ozone layer over Antarctica — once predicted as taking decades to improve — is increasing If the estimated methane reserves of 400 million tcf (trillion cubic feet) discovered in gas hydrates offshore can be accessed, the entire energy paradigm will shift dramatically to clean fuels While our goal is the same as in our first edition — “giving the reader a firm grasp of the principles that make up the broad field of air quality, its pollution and its management” — we are also celebrating the successes we have seen over the past 40 years of a concerted effort directed toward clean air I would like to pay tribute to the thousands who have spent myriad hours studying the atmosphere, devising technologies for clean fuels, clean engines and new control systems, investigating health effects, reviewing historical information on climate, monitoring the air, preparing new management strategies, evaluating rules and regulations, and guiding the energies and industries of a modern society in new directions To you we say thank you 7099_C000.fm Page viii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM 7099_C000.fm Page ix Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM Preface to the First Edition In order to understand and manage our air quality resources, it is necessary to gain a fundamental understanding of the principles that govern our ability to so From a local perspective, it may be considered desirable to install huge fans in order to “blow the smog away,” but from a technological and scientific perspective it is not feasible Likewise, from a regional or continental perspective, it is not acceptable to merely transfer air contaminants from one location to another one by dilution or “blowing it away.” It is therefore the purpose of this book to give the reader a firm grasp of the principles that make up the broad field of air quality, its pollution, and its management Starting from the basic definitions of air and types of air pollution, we will follow some of its history through the present century From that perspective, we will look at the terms used: air quality, emissions, standards and classifications of pollutants, and the production of secondary air pollution or photochemical smog We next look at the health effects of the criteria air pollutants and those that are considered toxic or hazardous, and the effects of those contaminants on the human body Air pollutant damages to materials and vegetation are also reviewed The standards of acceptable air quality from the perspective of health impacts (chronic through emergency episode concentrations) and the techniques for measuring air quality are also reviewed We approach the sources of air contaminants from an anthropogenic as well as geogenic and biogenic perspective Between sources and receptors we look at how contaminants are dispersed into the atmosphere from a local, regional, and global perspective From these studies come an evaluation of the different models used to calculate dispersion and the models used to predict ambient air quality Federal laws and regulations as well as regional perspectives are summarized and evaluated Control technologies that are available for both stationary sources and mobile sources are reviewed From these, we are able to evaluate the possible management options for limiting emissions and optimizing air pollutant strategies Global air quality concerns, relative global emissions, and the alternative views are evaluated from the perspective of management options that may be available to society at large Of particular concern are those that may influence long-term air quality and health Finally, we will be looking at indoor air quality and the future trends in air quality management approaches, with their limitations 7099_book.fm Page 321 Friday, July 14, 2006 3:13 PM Glossary 321 to be without deleterious effects during a lifetime The RfD is reported in units of mg of substance/kg body weight/day for oral exposures reference exposure concentration (RfC) An estimate, derived by the U.S EPA (with an uncertainty spanning perhaps an order of magnitude) of a daily exposure to the human population (including sensitive subgroups) that is likely to be without appreciable risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime of exposure The RfC is derived from a no or lowest observed adverse effect level from human or animal exposures, to which uncertainty or “safety” factors are applied reference exposure level (REL) A term used in risk assessment It is the concentration at or below which no adverse health effects are anticipated for a specified exposure period reformulated gasoline Specially refined gasoline with low levels of smog-forming volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and low levels of hazardous air pollutants The 1990 Clean Air Act requires sale of reformulated gasoline in the nine smoggiest areas in the United States regional haze The haze produced by a multitude of sources and activities that emit fine particles and their precursors across a broad geographic area National regulations require states to develop plans to reduce the regional haze that impairs visibility in national parks and wilderness areas residual risk The quantity of health risk remaining after application of emission control Ringelmann chart A series of charts, numbered to 5, that simulate various smoke densities by presenting different percentages of black A Ringelmann No is equivalent to 20% black; a Ringelmann No is 100% black They are used for measuring the opacity or equivalent obscuration of smoke arising from stacks and other sources by matching the actual effluent with the various numbers, or densities, indicated by the charts risk assessment An evaluation of risk which estimates the relationship between exposure to a harmful substance and the likelihood that harm will result from that exposure risk management An evaluation of the need for and feasibility of reducing risk It includes consideration of magnitude of risk, available control technologies, and economic feasibility scrubber An air pollution control device that uses a high energy liquid spray to remove aerosol and gaseous pollutants from an air stream The gases are removed either by absorption or chemical reaction secondary particle Particles that are formed in the atmosphere Secondary particles are products of the chemical reactions between gases, such as nitrates, sulfur oxides, ammonia, and organic products sensitive groups Identifiable subsets of the general population that are at greater risk than the general population to the toxic effects of a specific air pollutant (e.g., infants, asthmatics, elderly) smog A combination of smoke and other particulates, ozone, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and other chemically reactive compounds which, under 7099_book.fm Page 322 Friday, July 14, 2006 3:13 PM 322 Principles of Air Quality Management, Second Edition certain conditions of weather and sunlight, may result in a murky brown haze that causes adverse health effects soot Very fine carbon particles that have a black appearance when emitted into the air source Any place or object from which air pollutants are released Sources that are fixed in space are stationary sources, and sources that move are mobile sources stakeholders Citizens, environmentalists, businesses, and government representatives that have a stake or concern about how air quality is managed State Implementation Plan (SIP) A detailed description of the programs a state will use to carry out its responsibilities under the Clean Air Act State implementation plans are collections of the regulations used by a state to reduce air pollution The Clean Air Act requires that EPA approve each state implementation plan stationary sources Nonmobile sources such as power plants, refineries, and manufacturing facilities that emit air pollutants sulfur dioxide (SO2) A strong smelling, colorless gas that is formed by the combustion of fossil fuels Power plants, which may use coal or oil high in sulfur content, can be major sources of SO2 SO2 and other sulfur oxides contribute to the problem of acid deposition SO2 is a criteria air pollutant sulfur oxides Pungent, colorless gases (sulfates are solids) formed primarily by the combustion of sulfur-containing fossil fuels, especially coal and oil Considered major air pollutants, sulfur oxides may impact human health and damage vegetation temperature inversion One of the weather conditions that is often associated with serious smog episodes in some portions of the country In a temperature inversion, air doesn’t rise because it is trapped near the ground by a layer of warmer air above it Pollutants, especially smog and smogforming chemicals, including volatile organic compounds, are trapped by it close to the ground toxic air contaminant (TAC) An air pollutant that may cause or contribute to an increase in deaths or in serious illness, or which may pose a present or potential hazard to human health Health effects to TACs may occur at extremely low levels, and it is typically difficult to identify levels of exposure which not produce adverse health effects Roughly corresponding to the federal hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) transfer efficiency For coatings, a measure of the percent of the total amount of coating used which is transferred to a unit surface by a spray gun or other device ultra-low emission vehicle (ULEV) Vehicles that meet the ultra-low emission standards These emission limits are between those for LEVs and ZEVs unit risk factor (URF) The number of potential excess cancer cases from a lifetime exposure to one microgram per cubic meter (µ/m3) of a given substance For example, a unit risk value of 5.5 × 10–6 would indicate an estimated 5.5 cancer cases per million people exposed to an average concentration of µ/m3 of a specific carcinogen for 70 years 7099_book.fm Page 323 Friday, July 14, 2006 3:13 PM Glossary 323 urban airshed model A three-dimensional photochemical grid model designed to calculate the concentrations of both inert and chemically reactive pollutants in the atmosphere It simulates the physical and chemical processes that affect pollution concentrations vapor recovery systems Mechanical systems that collect and recover chemical vapors resulting from transfer of gasoline from operations such as tankto-truck systems at refineries, tanker-to-pipeline systems at offshore oil operations, and pump-to-vehicle systems at gasoline stations vehicle miles traveled (VMT) The miles traveled by motor vehicles over a specified length of time (e.g., daily, monthly, or yearly) or over a specified road or transportation corridor volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Organic chemicals all contain the element carbon (C); organic chemicals are the basic chemicals found in living things and in products derived from living things, such as coal, petroleum and refined petroleum products weight of evidence The extent to which the available information supports the hypothesis that a substance causes an effect in humans For example, factors which determine the weight-of-evidence that a chemical poses a hazard to humans include the number of tissue sites affected by the agent; the number of animal species, strains, sexes, relationship, statistical significance in the occurrence of the adverse effect in treated subjects compared to untreated controls; and the timing of the occurrence of adverse effect zero emission vehicle (ZEV) Vehicles which produce no emissions from the on-board source of power (e.g., an electric vehicle) 7099_book.fm Page 324 Friday, July 14, 2006 3:13 PM 7099_book.fm Page 325 Friday, July 14, 2006 3:13 PM Bibliography CHAPTER 1: THE ATMOSPHERE AND ITS CONTAMINANTS GENERAL Air Pollution Primer, National Tuberculosis and Respiratory Disease Association, New York, 1971 Bell, M.L and Davis, D.L., “Reassessment of the lethal London fog of 1952: Novel indicators of acute and chronic consequences of acute exposure to air pollution,” Environmental Health Perspectives, June 2001 Evelyn, J., “Fumifugium: or the Inconveniencie of the Aer and Smoak of London Dissipated Together with Some Remedies Humbly Proposed,” London, England, 1661 Godish, T., Air Quality, 2nd ed., Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1991 Griffin, R.D., Principles of Air Quality Management, 1st ed., CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1994 Williamson, S.J., Fundamentals of Air Pollution, Addison Wesley Publishing, Reading, MA, 1973 PERIODICALS, JOURNALS, AND INTERNET SITES “AirNow,” a cross-agency U.S Government Web site, www.Airnow.gov Atmospheric Environment, Pergammon Press, New York Chemical Engineering, McGraw Hill Publishers, New York Environmental Protection, Stevens Publishing Corporation, Dallas, TX Environmental Science and Technology, American Chemical Society, New York Environmental Technology, Publications Division, Selper Ltd., London, UK Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, Pittsburgh, PA Journal of the American Meteorological Association, Boston, MA “Wikipedia,” the Free Encyclopedia, www.wikipedia.org CHAPTER 2: EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION Hallenbeck, W.H and Cunningham, K.M., Quantitative Risk Assessment for Environmental and Occupational Health, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1986 “Hot Spots Analysis and Reporting Program (HARP),” Stationary Sources Division, California State Air Resources Board, December 2003 Kamrin, M A., Toxicology: A Primer on Toxicology Principles and Applications, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1988 Kelly, K., “Principles of hazardous materials management,” Lecture, UCLA extension class, Spring 1987 325 7099_book.fm Page 326 Friday, July 14, 2006 3:13 PM 326 Principles of Air Quality Management, Second Edition Kopfler, F.C and Craun, G.F., Environmental Epidemiology, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1986 Manahan, S.E., Toxicological Chemistry, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1989 Rule 1401 Health Risk Assessment Guidelines, South Coast Air Quality Management District Sittig, M Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1981 CHAPTER 3: AIR QUALITY STANDARDS AND MONITORING “8 hour ozone standard begins first phase,” AQMD Advisor, volume 11, South Coast Air Quality Management District, May 2004 Air Toxics Hot Spots Program Risk Assessment Guidelines, Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, August 2003 “Ambient air ozone standard,” Environmental Management, Air & Waste Management Association, Pittsburgh, PA, September 2004 “Exposure limits and odor thresholds for several chemicals,” Environmental Health & Safety, Northeastern University, Boston, www.ehs.neu.edu/tlv.htm, December 23, 2005 “International air quality standards,” World Health Organization, from Environmental Department of the World Bank, January 1995 Lodge, J.P., Methods of Air Sampling and Analysis, 3rd ed., Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1989 National Ambient Air Quality Standards, USEPA Office of Air & Radiation, Federal Register, 62 FR 38652, July 18, 1997, http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund: Vol — Human Health Evaluation Manual, USEPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response; January 1998, interim, www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/ragsa/index.htm CHAPTER 4: SOURCES AND MEASUREMENT METHODOLOGIES “Big cog in the carbon cycle,” Scientific American, vol 293, no 6, p 27, December 2005 “A compilation of sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide emission-rate data from Mount St Helens during 1980-1988,” by K.A McGee and T.J Casadevall, U.S Geological Survey, Open-File Report 94-212 (Internet version), November 2005 Dillon, W.P., Hearing on S.1418, the Methane Hydrate Research and Act of 1998, September 15, 1998, www.house.gov/science/dillon_09-15.htm EPCRA Section 313 Toxics Release Inventory for 2003 (Air Releases), U.S EPA, March 2005 Evans, W.C., personal communication with U.S Geological Survey chemist, 1996, regarding citation in Nature, vol 376, pp 675-678, 1995 Lenz, H.P and Cozzarini, C., Emissions and Air Quality, p 17, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1999 National Air Quality and Emissions Trend Report, 2003 U.S EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Document No EPA-450/4-92/001, August 2005 Steam: Its Generation and Use, Babcock and Wilcox Company, New York, 1978 Textro, C et al., “Emissions from Volcanoes,” in Emissions of Chemical Compounds and Aerosols in the Atmosphere, Claire Granier, Claire Reeves, and Paulo Artaxo (eds.), Klumer Publishers, Dordrecht, Holland, 2003 7099_book.fm Page 327 Friday, July 14, 2006 3:13 PM Bibliography 327 CHAPTER 5: METEOROLOGY, DISPERSION, AND MODELING Bowne, N.E and Yocom, J.E., “Introduction to Meteorology,” in Chemical Engineering, McGraw Hill Publication, July 30, 1979 Revision to the Guideline on Air Quality Models, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, USEPA, Appendix W , 40 CFR Part 51, November 9, 2005 Seinfeld, J.H, “Ozone Air Quality Models: A Critical Review,” Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, vol 38, no 5, May 1988 “Urban airshed model,” by Science Applications International, a Division of ICF Kaiser Engineers, Inc Zannetti, T Air Pollution Modeling, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1990 CHAPTER 6: STATIONARY-SOURCE CONTROL APPROACHES AP-42, Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors, USEPA, April 2000 Air Pollution Engineering Manual, 2nd ed., J.A Danielson, Ed., AP-40, U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Planning and Standards, May 1973 Considine, D.M., Ed., Chemical and Process Technology Encyclopedia, McGraw Hill, New York, 1974 Handbook of Control Technologies for Hazardous Air Pollutants, U.S EPA Office of Research and Development, EPA/625/6-91/014, June 1991 Hesketh, H.E., Fine Particles in Gaseous Media, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1986 “Low NOx at Low Cost for Glass Melters,” Gas Technologies for Today’s Environmental Challenges, from Natural Solutions Supplement, American Gas Association, Arlington, VA, Fall 1997 Methane Generation and Recovery from Land Fills, prepared by Emcon Associates, San Jose, CA, for Consolidated Concrete Limited, Ann Arbor Sciences Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, MI, 1980 “Oscillating Combustion Passes Field Tests,” Gas Technologies for Today’s Environmental Challenges, from Natural Solutions Supplement, American Gas Association, Arlington, VA, Winter 1999 Standefer, S., “Evaluating biofiltration,” Environmental Technology, July/August 1996 CHAPTER 7: MOBILE SOURCES AND CONTROL APPROACHES Calvert, S and Englund, H.M., Eds., Handbook of Air Pollution Technology, John Wylie & Sons, New York, 1984 Hodge, C., “Ethanol use in US gasoline should be banned, not expanded,” reprint by PennWell Corporation from Oil & Gas Journal, September 2002 “Homogeneous charge compression ignition: The holy grail of internal combustion engines … but can we tame the beast?,” presentation at the Windsor Workshop 2000, ATF Engine Management Systems Session, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, June 6, 2000 Pitts, J.N., Jr., “Atmospheric Pollution in the 1990s: Ozone, Acids, Toxics, and the Greenhouse Effect” (syllabus), Chemistry X471, UCI Education, Winter 1993 Starkman, E.S., Ed., Combustion-Generated Air Pollution, Plenum Press, New York, 1971 7099_book.fm Page 328 Friday, July 14, 2006 3:13 PM 328 Principles of Air Quality Management, Second Edition CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL CONCERNS Black, R., “Water vapor rather than carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is the main reason why Europe’s climate is warming,” BBC News, UK edition, November 12, 2005 “Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis,” Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC), 2001 Cambridge University Press, New York Durham, W.B., “Methane hydrate: A surprising compound,” Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories, March 1999, www.llnl.gov/str/Durham.htm “The evolution of global oceanic crust from jurassic to present day and its contribution to the global carbon budget,” EGS-AGU-EUG Joint Assembly transactions, Nice, France, April 2003 Idso, S.B., Carbon Dioxide and Global Change: Earth in Transition, IBR Press, a division of the Institute for Biospheric Research Inc., Tempe, AZ, 1989 Jastrow, R., Nierenberg, W., and Seitz, F., Scientific Perspectives on the Greenhouse Problem, The Marshall Press, Jameson Books, Ottawa, IL, 1990 Legge, A.H and Kroupa, S.V., Eds., Acidic Deposition: Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxides, Alberta Government Industry Acid Deposition Research Program, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1990 Lide, D.R., Ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 77th ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1995 Minnis P et al., “Contrails, Cirrus Trends and Climate,” Journal of Climate, vol 17, pp 1671–1685, 2004 Monastersky, R “Florida Dust Loaded with African Dust,” Science News, June 14, 1997 “Ozone Hole Retreats, But Danger Lingers,” Orange County (California) Register, December 19, 2004 Watson, T., “Air Pollution from Other Countries Drifts into USA: Emissions that Cross Borders Could Cancel Out U.S Efforts,” USA Today, March 14, 2005 CHAPTER 9: AIR QUALITY LAWS AND REGULATIONS The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, Public Law 101-549 ESS Magazine, Environmental Support Solutions, Inc., p 34, July 2005 SPECIFIC TEXTUAL CITATIONS Antolini, D.E., Modernizing Public Nuisance: Solving the Paradox of the Special Injury Rule, 28 ECOL L.Q 755, 767 (2001) CA Civil Code § 3479 Toxic Substances Control Act, 15 U.S.C.A § 2601 et seq (1976) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 42 U.S.C.A § 6901 et seq (1976) Comprehensive Emergency Response, Compensation and Liability Act, 42 U.S.C.A §9601 (1980) Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act, 42 U.S.C.A §9662 (1986) Clean Air Act, as amended, 42 U.S.C.A §7401–§7671 (2004) Classifications of Particulate Matter (PM-10) Nonattainment Areas, September 29, 2005, www.epa.gov/air/oaqps/greenbk/pnc.html Particulate Matter (PM-10) Federal Register Notice Attainment Date Extensions, 66 FED REG 32752 (2001) CAAA, §219(b)(2) (1990) Whitman v American Trucking Associations, 531 U.S 457, 121 S.Ct 903 (2001) 7099_book.fm Page 329 Friday, July 14, 2006 3:13 PM Bibliography 329 CHAPTER 10: MANAGEMENT, TRENDS, AND INDOOR AIR QUALITY “50 Years of Progress Toward Clean Air,” AQMD Advisor, vol 4, South Coast Air Quality Management District, 1997 2004 Statewide Annual Air Emissions, California Air Resources Board, www.arb.ca.gov/app/emsinv “Ambient air quality monitoring,” Environmental Management, Air & Waste Management Association, Pittsburgh, PA, p 30, August 2004 Cherry, K.F., Asbestos Engineering Management and Control, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1988 Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds., Indoor Air and Human Health, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1985 Godish, T., Indoor Air Pollution Air Control, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1989 “National Emissions Inventory (NEI), Air Pollutant Emissions Trends Data, Average annual emissions, all criteria pollutants,” U.S EPA, July 2005 “New Rule Addresses Air Toxics from Diesel Back Up generators,” AQMD Advisor, Volume 11, South Coast Air Quality Management District, May 2004 “A Summary of General Assessment Factors for Evaluating the Quality of Scientific and Technical Information,” U.S EPA, 2003 7099_book.fm Page 330 Friday, July 14, 2006 3:13 PM 7099_Idx.fm Page 331 Saturday, July 22, 2006 5:15 PM Index A absorption, 29–31, 56, 60, 64, 67, 74, 101–104, 113, 122, 163, 164, 171, 177, 183, 214, 215, 227, 231, 238 acceptable levels, 46, 245, 280, 281 acid deposition, 220, 221, 223, 224, 252, 253, 268 acute effects, 21, 23, 26, 49, 50, 70 adiabatic flame temperature, 84, 146, 151 adiabatic lapse rate, 111, 112, 125 adsorption, 163, 165, 177, 198, 305 aerosols, 10, 12–14, 40, 71, 75, 103, 213, 237, 291, 292 air/fuel ratios, 192 alcohol, 30, 37, 49, 155, 262 aldehydes, 15, 82, 163, 166, 167, 182, 302 ambient air quality standards, 6, 45, 48, 50, 125, 246–248, 252, 253, 262, 281, 287, 290 ammonia, 5, 8, 12, 14, 35, 38, 49, 59, 73, 96, 175, 176, 199, 220, 267 animal studies, 28, 47, 55 antagonism, 35, 36, 58 anthropogenic emissions, 10, 14, 76, 93, 216, 222 anticyclones, 109, 110 B baghouse, 94, 168–170 benzene, 6, 30, 31, 33, 35, 49, 59, 60, 79, 82, 90, 91, 156, 200–204, 261, 262, 264, 293 beryllium, 78, 168, 264 best available control measures, 257 best available control technology, 142, 249 biodiesel, 156, 205 birth defects, 36, 266 bronchitis, 25, 26 Brownian motion, 12 C cadmium, 59, 60, 72, 78, 144, 168, 264 cancer, 25, 27, 28, 33, 35, 36, 46, 48, 54, 57, 58, 60, 209, 215, 244, 265, 266, 292–295, 299 carbon cycle, 8, 75 carbon monoxide, 1, 5, 6, 8, 10, 15, 16, 23, 27, 30, 33, 35, 37, 45, 49–53, 66, 67, 74, 75, 81–83, 89, 91, 92, 94, 98, 136, 145, 155, 162, 174, 182, 187, 188, 198, 200, 201, 248, 251, 254, 258, 303, 304 carbon tetrachloride, 30, 31, 33, 59, 60, 273, 293 carcinogens, 22, 23, 35, 36, 46, 53, 54, 56–58, 96, 288 cardiovascular disease, 22 central nervous system, 27, 33 chlorine, 35, 49, 72, 167, 207, 216–220, 251, 264, 267, 273 chlorine monoxide, 217, 218 chlorofluorocarbons, 216, 225, 247 chromium, 59, 60, 72, 78, 168, 264 chronic effects, 23, 25–27, 50 Clean Air Act Amendments, 222, 250, 263, 273 climate change, 209, 224–226, 228, 235, 236, 238, 276 coal, 1–3, 11, 77–79, 92, 93, 99, 149, 152–155, 157, 168, 170, 175, 176, 253, 266, 270, 288, 306 coarse particles, 11, 12 coatings, 42, 87, 88, 94, 144, 145, 265 cold start emissions, 189 combustion, 3, 11–15, 71, 73, 75–77, 79, 81–86, 88–95, 97–99, 139, 140, 146–152, 154–158, 162, 166, 174–176, 179, 181–185, 187–194, 196–198, 200, 205–207, 250, 252, 253, 256, 258, 260, 262, 268, 283, 284, 286, 287, 291, 293, 294, 301–303 computerized diagnostic systems, 261 condensation nuclei, 12, 220, 224 Control Technique Guidelines, 257 Coriolis force, 107 criteria air pollutants, 5, 22, 45, 48, 54, 91, 93, 139, 280 critical inversion height, 127 D dermal absorption, 30 deterministic models, 129 diethyl stilbestrol, 34, 37 diffusion, 7, 10, 74, 103, 116, 127–129, 131, 135, 136, 171, 187, 188, 216, 297, 298 331 7099_Idx.fm Page 332 Saturday, July 22, 2006 5:15 PM 332 Principles of Air Quality Management, Second Edition dispersion, 2, 3, 7, 56, 58, 60, 61, 101, 103, 105, 107, 109–117, 119, 121, 123–125, 127–131, 133, 135–137, 152, 156, 244, 249, 281, 287 dispersion coefficients, 130 dispersion models, 58, 133, 136, 288 DNA, 33, 36 dose, 22, 29, 30, 33–35, 38, 45, 55–58, 218 dry adiabatic lapse rate, 112 E effective stack height, 124, 125, 127, 129 electrostatic precipitators, 167, 172, 305 emission factors, 98, 99 emphysema, 25, 27, 33 employee training, 289 environmental tobacco smoke, 291, 294–297 epidemiologic model, episodes, 3, 110, 122, 249, 286, 291 evaporative emissions, 85, 87–89, 91, 92, 97, 205, 261 exhaust gas recirculation, 192, 196, 197 exposure See threshold limit values external combustion systems, 147 eye irritation, 23, 63, 302 F fabric filtration See baghouse fine particles, 1, 11, 12, 65, 257, 260 flue gas desulfurization, 175 fluidized beds, 85, 157 formaldehyde, 48, 156, 201, 202, 261, 293, 302 fugitive sources, 92, 94, 97, 98, 198 fumigation, 120, 125, 126 future trends, 286 G gas chromatographs, 65 gas turbines, 150 gasoline, 15, 79, 80, 83–85, 87, 91–93, 155, 163, 179, 180, 183, 185, 186, 188, 190, 192, 193, 198, 200–205, 244, 252, 258, 259, 261–263, 265 Gaussian plume model, 129, 130 general circulation models, 236 generally available control technology, 265 H Hadley cells, 107 halons, 273 hazard index, 58 hazardous air pollutants, 6, 7, 22, 23, 54, 89, 91, 96, 139, 170, 178, 205, 243, 250, 252, 263, 264, 266, 268, 274, 286, 288–289 heavy metals, 2, 12, 26, 30, 33, 34, 167, 251, 262 hemoglobin, 27, 30, 33 hoods, 88 hot spots, 61, 63, 157, 182, 266 hydrocarbons, 15, 16, 18–20, 30, 31, 33, 60, 67, 73–75, 80, 83, 92, 93, 97, 110, 136, 156, 181–183, 185, 187–189, 193–196, 198–202, 248, 260, 262, 263, 290, 291, 303 hydrofluorocarbons, 219 hydrogen sulfide, 5, 8, 49, 59, 64, 81, 89, 91, 267 hydrologic cycle, hydroxyl radicals, I incineration, 95, 166, 174, 268 indirect sources, 289 indoor air pollution, 304–306 ingestion, 30, 56 inhalation, 30, 47, 56, 59, 132 injection, 30, 92, 148, 150, 151, 175, 176, 185, 187, 190, 192, 197, 199 internal combustion, 84, 85, 93, 179, 188, 192, 207 interstate transport, 257, 275 inversions, 110, 115, 116, 122, 127, 128, 290 isokinetic sampling, 97 J jet streams, 105 K kidneys, 30, 31, 33, 35 L landfills, 71, 89, 90, 92, 99, 123 lapse rate, 111, 112, 125, 137 latency, 22, 36, 55 laws, 8, 10, 129, 136, 161, 243, 245–251, 253, 255, 257, 259, 261, 263, 265, 267, 269, 271, 273, 275, 277, 278 lead, 6, 12, 14, 22, 23, 27, 28, 33, 34, 42, 45, 50, 51, 64, 65, 72, 78, 79, 91, 92, 95, 96, 119, 123, 141, 145, 162, 168, 183, 199, 235, 236, 261, 262, 264, 275, 278, 280–282, 296, 301, 303 7099_Idx.fm Page 333 Saturday, July 22, 2006 5:15 PM Index 333 Little Ice Age, 211, 226, 227, 235 liver, 27, 30, 31, 33, 35 lowest achievable emission rate, 249 lung cancer, 33, 35, 36, 293–296, 299 lungs, 1, 12, 21, 23, 24, 27, 30–32, 260, 295 ozone, 3, 5, 6, 8, 14–19, 23–26, 31, 35, 39, 42, 45, 47–53, 61–63, 65–67, 74–76, 82, 83, 92, 101, 105, 107, 129, 134–137, 139, 146, 189, 201, 202, 205, 209, 213–219, 225, 240, 248, 250, 252–259, 261, 262, 270, 273, 274, 276, 278, 283–286, 290–292, 294, 303 ozone layer, 216, 218, 276 M management approaches, 2, 7, 281, 285, 290 margin of safety, 49, 265 materials damage, 20 mathematical models, 55, 129, 134, 136 maximum achievable control technology, 265 mercury, 9, 33, 59, 72, 78, 79, 84, 87, 168, 209, 212, 264, 266, 267, 303 mesothelioma, 36 methane, 5, 8, 14, 49, 77, 81, 89, 91, 201, 210, 225, 228–231 methanol, 31, 49, 59, 86, 96, 150, 151, 162, 205, 263, 264 mixing height, 113, 116, 117, 134, 135 mobile sources, 15, 93, 96, 179–181, 183, 185, 187, 189, 191, 193, 195, 197, 199, 201, 203, 205, 207, 248, 255, 256, 263, 281, 286, 290 modeling, 7, 56–58, 60, 101, 103, 105, 107, 109, 111, 113, 115, 117, 119, 121, 123, 125, 127–131, 133–137, 205, 237, 238, 249, 276 monitoring, 12, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 59, 61, 63, 65–67, 97, 129, 136, 137, 142, 143, 147, 152, 218, 246–248, 251, 258, 266, 271, 272, 275, 277, 278, 282, 283, 288, 290 motor vehicle, 248, 262, 274 mutagens, 23, 36, 53, 54, 96 P paraffins, 185, 201 particulate matter, 2, 8, 10, 12, 14, 23, 26, 33, 37, 40–42, 45, 49–51, 63–65, 70, 88, 92, 93, 95, 97–99, 134, 139, 141, 152, 154, 155, 159, 162, 167–173, 179, 181, 205, 211, 224, 237, 244, 261, 278, 286, 295 penalties, 261, 272, 274, 275, 288 pH, 10, 38, 159, 210, 220–224, 230 photochemical modeling, 205 photochemical smog, 3, 14 photolysis, 16, 17, 136 plume rise, 123–125, 128, 130, 133 plumes, 123, 125, 128, 176 pollutant standard index, 51–53 polychlorinated biphenyls, 91, 250 pressure gradient, 110, 117, 137 pressure systems, 117, 119 prevention of significant deterioration, 63, 248 primary pollutants, 88 process optimization, 139, 140, 146 products of incomplete combustion, 82, 91, 92, 162, 182, 183 public nuisance, 45, 46, 48, 243, 244 pulmonary edema, 35 N R necrosis, 27, 38 neurotoxic agents, 30, 31 new source performance standards, 248, 249, 268 new source review, 249, 255, 256, 258 nickel, 35, 59, 60, 78, 168, 264 nitrogen cycle, nitrogen oxides, 72, 73, 174, 257, 267, 268 nonattainment areas, 50, 253–256, 258–262, 283, 287, 289, 290 radon, 1, 264, 291, 292, 295–300, 301 RCRA incinerators, 250 reformulated gasoline, 155, 262 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 250 respiratory system, 1, 23, 26, 32, 259 risk assessment, 46, 53, 54, 56, 58, 60, 252, 288 O occupational exposure levels, 53 odors, 1, 2, 46, 69, 91, 157, 243 operating permits, 250, 270, 272 oxidants, 14–16, 18, 39 S scrubbers, 167, 171, 172, 177, 268, 305 sea level, 5, 9, 87, 102, 107, 112, 213, 218, 225, 233, 234, 237, 238 secondary pollutants, 14 sick building syndrome, 303 slope winds, 121, 122 smoking, 1, 28, 30, 35, 36, 81, 294–295, 303, 304 7099_Idx.fm Page 334 Saturday, July 22, 2006 5:15 PM 334 Principles of Air Quality Management, Second Edition soil gas, 297 solar activity, 233–235 solar radiation, 101–103, 117, 213, 214 solid waste, 2, 155, 247, 252, 268 solvents, 14, 32, 85, 87, 89, 91, 94, 96, 144, 146, 162, 165, 216, 219, 290, 304 source reduction, 139, 140, 178, 264, 281, 303 source testing, 97, 99 spark timing, 193, 194, 197 stability, 111, 117, 123, 125, 126, 130–132 stack height, 124–127, 129, 130 Standard Industrial Classification, 88 State Implementation Plans, 135, 247, 248, 255 statistical models, 129, 133, 136, 137 stratified charge engine, 197 subsidence inversion, 110, 117 sulfur compounds, 89, 92 sunspots, 209 synergism, 35, 36, 39, 57 T target organs, 23, 27, 30, 33, 56 teratogens, 23, 36, 53, 96 terpenes, 14 thalidomide, 36, 37 threshold limit values, 46 thresholds, 39, 48, 49, 287 toluene, 33, 49, 59, 86, 87, 96, 162, 264, 296 Toxic Release Inventory Program, 264 Toxic Substances Control Act, 250 trichloroethylene, 86, 87, 89, 293 U ultraviolet radiation, 17, 18, 215, 217–219 unit risk factor, 58, 60 V vapor pressure, 86, 87, 262 ventilation systems, 304 venturi scrubbers, 167, 172 vinyl chloride, 47, 48, 60, 89 visibility, 4, 10, 12, 26, 134, 213, 253, 275, 276 visual range, 134 volatile organic compounds, 15–17, 76, 91, 94, 96, 165, 250, 291, 292–293, 305 volcanos, 14 W waste minimization, 281 water vapor, 5, 7, 9, 10, 18, 136, 151, 175, 227, 228, 238 wind movement, 101 World Health Organization, 50, 306 X xylene, 86, 87 Z zinc, 41, 72, 168