Bioaccumulation in marine organisms effect of contaminants from oil well produced water

Tai Lieu Chat Luong BIOACCUMULATION IN MARINE ORGANISMS Effect of Contaminants from Oil Well Produced Water This Page Intentionally Left Blank BIOACCUMULATION IN MARINE ORGANISMS Effect of C o n t a m i n a n t s from Oil Well P r o d u c e d W a t e r JERRY M NEFF, Ph.D Battelle, Coastal Resources and Environmental Management, Duxbury, Massachusetts 02332, USA ELSEVIER Amsterdam Paris - San - Boston Diego - Heidelberg - San Francisco - London - New York - Singapore - Sydney - Oxford - Tokyo ELSEVIER B.V Sara Burgerhartstraat 25 P.O.Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands ELSEVIER Inc 525 B Street, Suite 1900 San Diego, CA 92101-4495 USA ELSEVIER Ltd The Boulevard, Langford Lane Kidlington,Oxford OX5 1GB UK ELSEVIER Ltd 84 Theobalds Road LondonWC1X 8RR UK 2002 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved This work is protected under copyright by Elsevier Ltd, and the following terms and conditions apply to its use: Photocopying Single photocopies of single chapters may be made for personal use as allowed by national copyright laws Permission of the Publisher and payment of a fee is required for all other photocopying, including multiple or systematic copying, copying for advertising or promotional purposes, resale, and all forms of document delivery Special rates are available for educational institutions that wish to make photocopies for non-profit educational classroom use Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier's Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) 1865 843830, fax (+44) 1865 853333, e-mail: permissions@elsevier.com Requests may also be completed on-line via the Elsevier homepage (http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissions) In the USA, users may clear permissions and make payments through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA; phone: (+1) (978) 7508400, fax: (+1) (978) 7504744, and in the UK through the Copyright Licensing Agency Rapid Clearance Service (CLARCS), 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 0LP, UK; phone: (+44) 20 7631 5555; fax: (+44) 20 7631 5500 Other countries may have a local reprographic rights agency for payments Derivative Works Tables of contents may be reproduced for intemal circulation, but permission of the Publisher is required for external resale or distribution of such material Permission of the Publisher is required for all other derivative works, including compilations and translations Electronic Storage or Usage Permission of the Publisher is required to store or use electronically any material contained in this work, including any chapter or part of a chapter Except as outlined above, no part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Publisher Address permissions requests to: Elsevier's Rights Department, at the fax and e-mail addresses noted above Notice No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made First edition 2002 Second impression 2004 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record is available from the British Library ISBN: 0-08-043716-8 The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper) Printed in The Netherlands Contents Preface xi Acknowledgements xv C H A P T E R 1: P R O D U C E D W A T E R 1.1 1 C o m p o s i t i o n o f P r o d u c e d Water 1.1.1 Sources and Treatment o f Produced Water 1.1.2 Naturally-Occurring C h e m i c a l s in Produced Water 1.1.3 Production C h e m i c a l s in P r o d u c e d Water 16 1.2 Volumes o f P r o d u c e d Water Discharged to the Ocean 18 1.3 Fate o f C h e m i c a l s from Produced Water in the O c e a n 19 19 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.4 M o d e l e d Dilution o f the Produced Water Plume Fate o f C h e m i c a l s in Produced Water Plumes Degradation o f Produced Water Chemicals in the O c e a n Toxicity o f P r o d u c e d Water 1.4.1 Toxicity o f W h o l e P r o d u c e d Water 1.4.2 Causes o f P r o d u c e d Water Toxicity 1.4.3 Toxicity o f P r o d u c e d Water Additives C H A P T E R 2: B I O A C C U M U L A T I O N M E C H A N I S M S 22 27 30 30 33 34 37 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Bioavailability 37 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 37 38 42 Definitions Metals Organic C h e m i c a l s 2.3 Bioaccumulation 2.4 Bioconcentration 2.4.1 Definitions 2.4.2 N o n p o l a r Organic C h e m i c a l s 43 44 44 44 vi Bioaccumulation in Marine Organisms 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.5 46 47 Ionizable Organic Chemicals Metals 50 50 51 54 Biomagnification 2.5.1 Definitions 2.5.2 Organic Chemicals 2.5.3 Metals 57 C H A P T E R 3" ARSENIC IN THE OCEAN 3.1 Arsenic in Seawater 57 3.2 Arsenic in Marine Sediments 60 3.3 Bioaccumulation and Biotransformation of Arsenic 62 3.4 Concentrations of Arsenic in Tissues of Marine Organisms 68 3.5 Toxicity of Arsenic to Marine Organisms 72 3.6 Environmental Effects of Arsenic in Produced Water 76 C H A P T E R 4: BARIUM IN THE O C E A N 79 4.1 Barium in Seawater 79 4.2 Barium in Marine Sediments 81 4.3 Bioaccumulation of Barium by Marine Organisms 82 83 4.4 Concentrations of Barium in Tissues of Marine Organisms 4.5 Toxicity of Barium to Marine Organisms 84 4.6 Environmental Effects of Barium in Produced Water 86 C H A P T E R 5" C A D M I U M IN THE O C E A N 89 Cadmium in Seawater 89 5.2 Cadmium in Marine Sediments 92 5.3 Bioaccumulation of Cadmium by Marine Organisms 93 5.4 Concentrations of Cadmium in Tissues of Marine Organisms 97 5.5 Toxicity of Cadmium to Marine Organisms 100 5.6 Environmental Effects of Cadmium in Produced Water 102 5.1 C H A P T E R 6: MERCURY IN THE O C E A N 103 6.1 Mercury in Seawater 103 6.2 Mercury in Marine Sediments 108 6.3 Bioaccumulation of Mercury by Marine Organisms 112 6.4 Concentrations of Mercury in Tissues of Marine Organisms 117 6.5 Toxicity of Mercury to Marine Organisms 125 6.6 Environmental Effects of Mercury in Produced Water 129 Contents vii C H A P T E R 7: C H R O M I U M IN THE O C E A N 7.1 131 Chromium in Seawater 131 7.2 Chromium in Marine Sediments 133 7.3 Bioaccumulation of Chromium by Marine Organisms 135 7.4 Concentrations of Chromium in Tissues of Marine Organisms 137 7.5 Toxicity of Chromium to Marine Organisms 141 7.6 Environmental Effects of Chromium in Produced Water C H A P T E R 8: COPPER IN THE O C E A N 142 145 8.1 Copper in Seawater 145 8.2 Copper in Marine Sediments 148 8.3 Bioaccumulation of Copper by Marine Organisms 150 8.4 Concentrations of Copper in Tissues of Marine Organisms 153 8.5 Toxicity of Copper to Marine Organisms 157 8.6 Environmental Effects of Copper in Produced Water 159 C H A P T E R 9: LEAD IN THE O C E A N 161 9.1 Lead in Seawater 161 9.2 Lead in Marine Sediments 164 9.3 Bioaccumulation of Lead by Marine Organisms 166 9.4 Concentrations of Lead in Tissues of Marine Organisms 167 9.5 Toxicity of Lead to Marine Organisms 170 9.6 Environmental Effects of Lead in Produced Water 173 C H A P T E R 10: ZINC IN THE O C E A N 10.1 Zinc in Seawater 10.2 Zinc in Marine Sediments 175 175 177 10.3 Bioaccumulation of Zinc by Marine Organisms 179 10.4 Concentrations of Zinc in Tissues of Marine Organisms 182 10.5 Toxicity of Zinc to Marine Organisms 186 10.6 Environmental Effects of Zinc in Produced Water 188 C H A P T E R 11: R A D I U M ISOTOPES IN THE O C E A N 191 11.1 Radium in Seawater 191 11.2 Radium in Marine Sediments 194 11.3 Bioaccumulation of Radium by Marine Organisms 195 11.4 Concentrations of Radium in Tissues of Marine Organisms 198 11.5 Toxicity of Radium to Marine Organisms 199 11.6 Environmental Effects of Radium in Produced Water 200 viii Bioaccumulation in Marine Organisms CHAPTER 12: PHENOLS IN THE OCEAN 12.1 203 Phenols in Seawater 203 12.2 Phenols in Marine Sediments 206 12.3 Bioaccumulation of Phenols by Marine Organisms 207 12.4 Concentrations of Phenols in Tissues of Marine Organisms 209 12.5 Toxicity of Phenols to Marine Organisms 210 12.6 Environmental Effects of Phenols in Produced Water 213 CHAPTER 13: DI(2-ETHYLHEXYL)PHTHALATE IN THE OCEAN 215 13.1 Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in Seawater 215 13.2 Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in Marine Sediments 218 13.3 Bioaccumulation of Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate by Marine Organisms 219 13.4 Concentrations of Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in Tissues of Marine Organisms 220 13.5 Toxicity of Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate to Marine Organisms 221 13.6 Environmental Effects of Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in Produced W a t e r 223 CHAPTER 14: MONOCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN THE OCEAN 14.1 225 Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Seawater 225 14.1.1 Sources of Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Ocean 225 14.1.2 Concentrations of Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Seawater 228 14.2 Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Marine Sediments 231 14.3 Degradation of Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Water and Sediments 232 14.4 Bioaccumulation of Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons by Marine Organisms 233 14.5 Concentrations of Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Tissues of Marine Organisms 235 14.6 Toxicity of Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons to Marine Organisms 237 14.7 Environmental Effects of Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Produced Water CHAPTER 15: POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN THE OCEAN 15.1 239 241 Sources of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Marine Environment 241 15.1.1 Formation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 241 15.1.2 Petrogenic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 243 15.1.3 Pyrogenic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 247 Contents 15.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Seawater ix 254 15.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Marine Sediments 262 15.3.1 Sorption of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons to Sediments 262 15.3.2 Concentration of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Sediments 266 15.4 Degradation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 15.4.1 Photooxidation 15.4.2 Microbial Degradation 15.5 Bioaccumulation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons by Marine Organisms 15.5.1 Uptake of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons by Marine Organisms 15.5.2 Metabolism of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons by Marine Organisms 15.5.3 Net Bioaccumulation and Trophic Transfer of Polycylic Aromatic Hydrocarbons by Marine Organisms 269 269 271 277 277 281 288 15.6 Concentrations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Tissues of Marine Organisms 293 15.7 Toxicity of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons to Marine O r g a n i s m s 15.7.1 Toxicity of Unmodified PAHs 15.7.2 Phototoxicity of PAHs 15.7.3 Causes of Toxicity of Complex Mixtures Containing PAHs 15.7.4 Mutagenicity and Carcinogenicity of PAHs 15.7.5 Human Toxicity of PAHs in Seafoods 299 299 304 308 310 311 15.8 Environmental Effects of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Produced Water 313 REFERENCES INDEX 319 439 This Page Intentionally Left Blank Index Page numbers followed by f and t refer to figures and tables, respectively bioavailability of, 42-43 bioconcentration factors, 209 Amines, bioavailability of, 42 Ammonia in produced water, concentrations and importance of, 4-5, 4t toxicity, 33 Amoco Cadiz oil spill, PAHs in bioaccumulation of, 296 degradation of, 276 tissue concentrations, 298-299 Amphibians bioaccumulation of DEHP, 220t tissue concentrations of arsenic, 70 of cadmium, 98t, 100 of mercury, 117t Amphipods See Crustaceans Antifoam agents amounts used and discharged, 35t toxicity, 35, 35t Aromatic hydrocarbons See Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Arsenic bioaccumulation of, 55, 62-68, 64t forms, 65-66, 66t bioavailability of, 64, 64t biomagnification, 63 chemical properties, 57 in estuaries and coastal waters, concentrations, 57-58 A Algae bioaccumulation in of arsenic, 62, 63 of BTEX, 233 of DEHP, 220t of PAHs, 292 of radium, 195-196 biomagnification in, 54 sensitivity of to arsenic, 72 to BTEX, 237 to mercury, 126 to phenols, 210 to produced water, 31, 32t to radiation, 200 to zinc, 186 tissue concentrations of arsenic, 68t, 69, 69t, 70 of barium, 83, 83t, 84 of BTEX, 235 of cadmium, 98t of copper, 155-156, 156t of lead, 169-170, 169t ofmercury, l17t, 118, l19t, 123t of PAHs, 293t, 294, 298t of radium, 199t of zinc, 183t Alkanes, concentrations in produced water, 11-12, 13t, 14, 16t Alkylphenols bioaccumulation of, 209 439 440 Bioaccumulation in Marine Organisms in produced water concentrations, 5t, environmental effects, 76-78, 77t in rivers concentrations, 58 forms, 59 in seawater concentrations, 5t, 57, 59-60 EPA standards, 57 forms, 57, 58f 59, 62, 75, 75t reduction rates, 59 sources, 58, 59 in sediment concentrations, 59-62, 60t forms, 61 quality criteria, 75-76 reduction rates, 61 tissue concentrations, 68-72, 68t, 76-78, 77t toxicity, 55, 72-76 ERL and ERM, 75t median lethal doses, 75t risk-based concentrations, 73t, 74-75 Ascidians bioaccumulation of radium, 196 tissue concentrations of arsenic, 69t B Bacteria bioaccumulation in of chromium, 134 of mercury, 113 biodegradation of PAHs by, 271-277, 273f sensitivity to phenols, 210 BAF See Bioaccumulation factor Barium bioaccumulation of, 55, 82-83, 86 chemical properties, 79 environmental effects, 86-87 in produced water, concentrations, 5t, 6, 26-27, 86 in rivers, concentrations and forms, 80-81 in seawater concentrations, 5t, 79-81, 80t sources, 80-81 in sediment concentrations, 26, 81-82, 82t environmental impact of, 85 forms, 81-82, 82t sources, 81-82, 86 tissue concentrations, 83-84, 83t, 86-87 toxicity, 33, 84-85 risk-based concentrations, 73t, 86 Barnacles See Crustaceans BCF See Bioconcentration factor Benzene See BTEX Benzo(a)pyrene See also Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in crude oil, 298 degradation of, 276 in seawater annual amount inputted, 246 concentrations, 266 in sediment, concentrations, 60t sources of, 298 tissue concentrations, 298, 298t, 312, 314-315 near oil spills, 298-299 near produced water sources, 317 toxicity, 249 acutely lethal concentration, 302 carcinogenic properties, 310 critical body residues, 300, 301,301t BF See Biomagnification factor Bioaccumulation, 43-44 See also specific chemicals Bioaccumulation factor (BAF), 43-44 for DEHP, 219 Bioavailability of chemicals See also specific chemicals channels of absorption, 38, 38f definition of, 3, 37 increase through weathering, 28 metals, 38-42, 38f 48 organic chemicals, 42-43 Biocides agents and purposes, 17 amounts used, injected, and discharged, 17t, 34-35, 35t toxicity, 34-35, 35t Bioconcentratable nonpolar organic chemicals, EPA definition of, 207-208 Bioconcentration, 44-50 definition of, 44 of ionizable organic chemicals, 46-47 of metals, 47-50 of nonpolar organic chemicals, 44 46, 47t Bioconcentration factor (BCF), 44 for alkylphenols, 209 for BTEX, 233,234t for cadmium, 49-50 for DEHP, 220, 220t for MAHs, 233,234t for metals, 49-50 for nonpolar organic chemicals, prediction of, 44-46 for PAHs, 277-278, 277-279, 278t vs Octanol/water partition coefficient, 286f for phenols, 208, 214 Biomagnification, 50-56 definition and requirements for, 50-51 Index 441 of metals, 54-56 mercury, 115-117, 118, 125 of organic chemicals, 51-54 Biomagnification factor (BF), definition of, 50-51 Birds bioaccumulation in of cadmium, 94 of copper, 153 of PAHs, 290, 292-293,292f biomagnification in, 52, 54 of metals, 56 sensitivity of to lead, 171, 172 to mercury, 125 tissue concentrations of cadmium, 98t, 99, 100t of chromium, 140, 140t of copper, 154t, 157 of lead, 154t, 170 ofmercury, l17t, 118, 120t, 121,123, 123t of PAHs, 293t, 295-296 of zinc, 154t, 185 Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate See Di(2ethylheyl)phthalate BMT PISCES model of produced water dilution, 21 Braer oil spill and bioabsorption of BTEX, 236 and bioaccumulation of PAHs, in fish, 297-298, 297t BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes) See also Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons bioaccumulation of, 233-235 in humans, 239 bioconcentration factors, 233,234t biodegradation of, 34 chemical properties, 225-226, 227f 227t, 233 in crude oils and gasoline, concentrations, 226t, 227t EPA standards for, 73t, 238 in produced water concentrations, 3t, 11, 231-232, 23 It, 239 environmental effects, 239-240 in seawater concentrations, 228-231,229t degradation, 28, 29t, 232-233 dilution of, 22-24, 25t in sediments concentrations, 26, 231-232, 231t degradation, 232-233 tissue concentrations, 235-236, 239-240 near sewage treatment effluent, 236t toxicity, 34, 233,237-239 carcinogenic qualities, 238, 239 mechanisms of, 238 median and geometric mean lethal concentrations, 234t, 237, 237t risk-based concentrations, 73t, 239 C Cadmium bioaccumulation of, 55, 93-97 bioavailability of, 93, 100-101 bioconcentration factor, for various creatures, 49-50 chemical properties, 89 in humans, intake and effect of, 101 in produced water concentrations, 5, 5t, 6, 102 environmental effects, 102 in seawater concentrations, 89-92, It forms, 89-90, 90t sources, 89 in sediments concentrations, 60t, 92-93 forms, 93 tissue concentrations, 97-100, 98t toxicity, 100-102 ERL and ERM, 101-102 risk-based concentrations, 73t, 101 Calcium, and toxicity, 33 Carboxylic acids, bioavailability of, 42 Cephalopods, tissue concentrations of chromium, 139t of copper, 155 of lead, 168 of mercury, 117t, 118 of PAHs, 293t Chromium bioaccumulation of, 134, 135-137 in estuaries and coastal waters, concentrations, 131, 133 forms, and toxicity, 141 in produced water concentrations, 5t, 6, 142 environmental effects, 142-143 in rivers, 132, 142 in seawater concentrations, 5t, 132 forms, 131-132, 132t in sediment concentrations, 60t, 133 forms, 134 sources, 133 tissue concentrations, 137-140, 137t, 138t, 139t 442 Bioaccumulation in Marine Organisms near produced water, 143 toxicity, 55, 135, 141-142, 142 ERL and ERM, 141 risk-based concentrations, 73t, 141 Cigarette smoke BTEX in, 239 PAHs in, 250, 25 It Coagulants amounts used and discharged, 35t toxicity, 35t Coal formation of, 243 PAH in, 243,244t Coal tar PAH in, 244t, 245,246f 247 toxicity, 308 Copepods See Crustaceans Copper in atmosphere, 145 bioaccumulation of, 150-153, 160 in estuaries and coastal waters concentrations, 145-146, 146t in sediment, 148 in produced water concentrations, 5t, 6, 159 environmental effects, 159-160 in seawater bioavailability, 39 concentrations, 5t, 145, 146t, 147-148 forms, 146-147, 147t in sediment concentrations, 60t, 148-150 forms, 148-149 tissue concentrations, 137t, 138t, 139t, 151, 153-157, 154t, 156t, 160, 160t toxicity, 55, 157-159 risk-based concentrations, 73t, 159 Corals, tissue concentrations of barium, 83, 83t of copper, 156t of lead, 169t CORMIX model of produced water dilution, 21, 22 Corrosion inhibitors agents and purposes, 17 amounts used, injected, and discharged, 17t, 35t concentrations in produced water, 35 toxicity, 34, 35, 35t Crabs See Crustaceans Creosote amount produced, 247 PAH in, 244t, 245,247 toxicity, 308 p-cresol, degradation in seawater, 29 Crude oil carcinogens in, 310 formation of, 243 PAH in, 243-245, 244t, 246f 274 weathering of, 308-309 Crustaceans bioaccumulation in of alkylphenols, 209 arsenic, 63, 66 of BTEX, 236t of cadmium, 94, 95-96 of chromium, 135-136 of copper, 150, 151,152-153 of DEHP, 219, 220, 220t of lead, 166 ofmercury, 112, 114-115, l14t of metals, 48-49 of PAHs, 279, 289 of phenols, 208-209 of radium, 196 of zinc, 179-180, 180, 181 sensitivity of to arsenic, 72 to barium, 84, 85 to BTEX, 237 to cadmium, 100-101 to chromium, 141 to copper, 157 to DEHP, 221,222 to PAHs, 299, 302, 307 to phenols, 213 to produced water, 31-32, 32t to zinc, 186, 187 tissue concentrations of arsenic, 72 of barium, 83-84, 83t of BTEX, 240 of cadmium, 98t, 99, 100t of chromium, 138, 138t, 139t, 140 of copper, 155, 156, 156t of DEHP, 221t of lead, 167, 168, 169t, 170 of mercury, 117t, 118, 119t, 123t, 124t, 129, 130t of PAHs, 293t, 294-295,298, 298t, 312,314 of phenols, 208 of radium, 199t, 201 t of zinc, 183t, 184 Cyclic alkanes, concentrations in produced water, 14, 16t Cytochrome P450 mixed function oxygenase (MFO) system, and metabolism of PAHs, 281-285,290, 296 Index D DDTs biomagnification of, 51, 52f in sediment, concentrations, 60t Decalin, concentrations in produced water, 14 Degradation of benzo(a)pyrene, 276 of BTEX, 34 in seawater, 28, 29t, 232-233 in sediments, 232-233 of p-cresol in seawater, 29 of DEHP, 218, 219 of dibenzothiophenes, in seawater, 29t of MAHs in seawater, 232-233 in sediments, 232-233 of naphthalenes in seawater, 29, 29t of PAHs, 275-276 in atmosphere, 248, 252 and bioavailability, 275-276 by microbes, 271-277, 273f by photooxidation, 269-271 rates of, 276-277 in seawater, 28-29, 29-30, 29t in sediments, 272-277 and toxicity, 272 of phenanthrenes in seawater, 29, 29t of phenols in seawater, 28, 29, 204-205, 206, 213-214 of saturated (aliphatic) hydrocarbons in seawater, 28-29, 29-30, 29t in seawater, 27-30, 28f 29t microbial adaptation and, 29 and toxicity, 33-34 of volatile acids in seawater, 29t DEHP See Di(2-ethylheyl)phthalate Demulsifiers amounts used and discharged, 35t toxicity, 35, 35t De-oilers amounts used and discharged, 35t toxicity, 35t Detergents amounts used and discharged, 35t concentrations in produced water, 35 toxicity, 35, 35t Dibenzothiophenes, degradation in seawater, 29t Diesel exhaust, PAHs in, 249 Diesel fuel, PAHs in, 245-246 Dilution of produced water chemicals, 27, 28f empirical dilution, 22-27 factors affecting, 19 modeled dilution, 19-22, 20t, 23-24 Di(2-ethylheyl)phthalate (DEHP) in atmosphere, 215 443 bioaccumulation, 219-220, 223 bioaccumulation factor, 219 bioconcentration factor, 220, 220t chemical properties, 215, 216-217, 216f, 218 degradation, 218, 219 EPA standards for, 73t, 222 in estuaries and coastal waters concentrations, 217, 217t in sediments, 218 in produced water concentrations, 223 environmental effects, 223-224 production and uses, 215 in rivers concentrations, 217-218, 217t in sediments, 218 in seawater concentrations, 217, 217t sources, 215 in sediments concentrations, 218, 220 toxicity, 222 tissue concentrations, 220-221, 221 t toxicity, 221-223 carcinogenic qualities, 222-223 risk-based concentrations, 73t, 223 Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs), iv Discharge of wastes into ocean, standards for See Standards Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and solubility of PAHs, 255-256 Drilling of offshore wells, barium deposited during, 81, 82 E Echinoderms bioaccumulation in of lead, 166 of mercury, 115 sensitivity of to arsenic, 72-73 to barium, 84-85 to BTEX, 238 to phenols, 210 tissue concentrations of arsenic, 69t of barium, 83t of cadmium, 98t of chromium, 139t of DEHP, 22 It of mercury, 117t, 124t of PAHs, 293t, 298t Effects range low (ERL) for arsenic, 76 for cadmium, 101-102 444 Bioaccumulation in Marine Organisms for chromium, 141 for copper, 158 for lead, 171 for PAHs, 303, 304t for zinc, 187, 188-189 Effects range median (ERM) for arsenic, 76 for cadmium, 101-102 for chromium, 141 for copper, 158 for lead, 171 for PAHs, 303, 304t for zinc, 187, 188-189 Environmental effects of produced water See also specific chemicals modeling of, 28 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) See also National Pollution Elimination System (NPDES) definition of bioconcentratable nonpolar organic chemicals, 207-208 standards for arsenic, 57 for BTEX, 73t, 238 for DEHP, 73t, 222 for metals, 73, 73t for phenols, 73t for radium, 73 t Equilibrium partitioning theory, and bioconcentration, 44-45 ERL See Effects range low ERM See Effects range median Ethylbenzene See BTEX Evaporation of produced water chemicals, 27, 28f Exxon Valdez oil spill BTEX concentrations in air over, 228, 229t and PAH concentrations in birds, 290 in fish, 287, 297, 299, 313 in mollusks, 296, 299, 302, 313 in sediment, 266, 268, 271 in surrounding water, 259 and PAH metabolism, 284 F Fish bioaccumulation in of alkylphenols, 209 of arsenic, 65-66, 66t, 67 of BTEX, 234-235,236t of cadmium, 94-95, 96 of chromium, 136-137 of copper, 151,152, 153 of DEHP, 219, 220t ofmercury, 114, l14t, 115-117, ll6t of metals, 50 of PAHs, 280, 287f 288, 289-290, 291, 292, 297-298, 297t of phenols, 208 of radium, 196, 197 of zinc, 180, 181-182 bioconcentration in bioconcentration factor for PAH, 277-279, 278t of nonpolar organic compounds, 45-46, 47t biomagnification in, 52-53, 54 health and growth, and mercury, 120 PAH induction equivalency factors, 283t PAH metabolism, 281-282, 282-283,283t, 284, 285-286, 287, 296, 302 sensitivity of to BTEX, 237 to cadmium, 100, 101 to copper, 159 to crude oil, 309 to DEHP, 221-222 to lead, 171-172 to mercury, 125, 126, 127 to PAHs, 299, 306, 310-311, 317 to phenols, 210-211,212-213 to produced water, 31-32, 32t to radiation, 200 to zinc, 186 tissue concentrations of arsenic, 68t, 69, 69t, 70-71, 76-78, 77t of barium, 84, 86-87 of BTEX, 235-236, 240 of cadmium, 98t, 99, 100t of chromium, 138t, 139t, 140, 140t, 143 of copper, 155, 156t, 157, 160, 160t of DEHP, 221t, 224 of lead, 160, 160t, 167, 168, 169t ofmercury, l17t, 118-120, 120t, 121, 123t, 124t, 129, 130t of PAHs, 287, 293t, 295, 298, 298t, 299, 312, 313,317-318, 318t of phenols, 209-210, 214 of radium, 198, 199t, 201t of zinc, 160, 160t, 183t, 184-185, 185t, 189 Flocculants amounts used and discharged, 35t toxicity, acute range, 35t Food and Drug Administration (FDA), lead standards, 172 Formation water See Produced water Fuel oils carcinogens in, 310 PAHs in, 246 Index 445 Fungi, biodegradation of PAHs by, 271-277, 273f G Gasoline, PAHs in, 245 Gasoline exhaust, PAHs in, 249 Gas-treating chemicals agents and purposes, 17-18 amounts used, injected, and discharged, 17t amounts used and discharged, 35t toxicity, 35t Gulf War oil spill, and PAHs bioaccumulation of, 296-297 in sediments, 267 H Hazard quotients (HQ), 30 Heterocyclic compounds, concentrations in produced water, 14-15, 16t HOMO-LUMO gap, and phototoxicity of PAHs, 306-308, 307t HQ See Hazard quotients Humans bioaccumulation in of arsenic, 67 of BTEX, 239 of cadmium, 101 of MAHs, 239 human health criteria See Risk-based concentrations sensitivity of to chromium, 141-142 to DEHP, 222 to lead, 171 to radiation, 200 to radium, 201 Hydrocarbons See also Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; Nitrogen-substituted hydrocarbons; Oxygen-substituted hydrocarbons; Petroleum hydrocarbons; Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; Saturated (aliphatic) hydrocarbons; Sulfur-substituted hydrocarbons; Volatile hydrocarbons bioavailability of, 42 and toxicity, 33 Hydrogen sulfide, and toxicity, 33 Hydrophobic organic chemicals, bioconcentration in, 44-46, 47t I Inorganic ions naturally-occurring, concentrations in produced water, 2-5, 4t and toxicity, 33 Insects bioaccumulation in, of DEHP, 220t sensitivity of, to cadmium, 100 tissue concentrations of cadmium, 98t, 99 of mercury, 119t Invertebrates See also specific species bioaccumulation in of BTEX, 236t of cadmium, 94-95 of lead, 166 sensitivity of to barium, 86 to cadmium, 101 to mercury, 125 to PAHs, 299 to radiation, 200 tissue concentrations of BTEX, 235-236 of copper, 156 of DEHP, 221 t Ionizable organic chemicals, bioconcentration of, 46-47 Iron, concentrations in produced water, 5t, 6, 26-27 in seawater, 5t in sediment, 26 K Kow See Octanol/water partition coefficient L Lead in atmosphere, 163 bioaccumulation of, 48-49, 166-167 bioavailability of, 166-167 in estuaries and coastal waters in sediments, 164 sources, 162 in produced water concentrations, 5, 5t, 6, 173 environmental effects, 173 in seawater concentrations, 5t, 161-162, 162t forms, 163, 164t sources, 162-163 in sediment concentrations, 60t, 164-165, 171 forms, 165 sources of, 172 toxicity, 171, 173 tissue concentrations, 137t, 138t, 139t, 154t, 160, 160t, 167-170 FDA guidelines for, 172 toxicity, 166, 170-172, 173 ERL and ERM, 171 risk-based concentrations, 73t, 172 446 Bioaccumulation in Marine Organisms Lobsters See Crustaceans M Magnesium, toxicity, 33 MAH See Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Mammals bioaccumulation in of arsenic, 67 of cadmium, 94, 96 of copper, 152, 153 of lead, 167 of mercury, 116-117, 116t of PAHs, 290 of radium, 197 biomagnification in, of metals, 56 sensitivity of to DEHP, 222 to lead, 171,172 to mercury, 126-127 to radiation, 200 tissue concentrations of arsenic, 68t, 69, 70, 70t of barium, 84 of cadmium, 98t, 99-100, 100t of chromium, 140, 140t of copper, 154t, 157 of lead, 154t, 170, 172 of mercury, 117t, 120-122, 120t, 123-125, 123t, 124t, 129 of PAHs, 293t, 295-296 of radium, 198 of zinc, 154t, 185 Manganese, concentrations in produced water, 5t, 6, 7, 26-27 in seawater, 5t in sediment, 26 Mercury in atmosphere, 104-105, 104f bioaccumulation of, 104fi 112-117 bioavailability of, 112-113 biomagnification of, 115-117, 118, 125 in estuaries and coastal waters, 111-112 concentrations, 105, 107 forms, 102, 105-107, 106t, 113 methylation and demethylation of, 109-110, 113, 124, 125 in produced water concentrations, 5, 5t, 6, 129 environmental effects, 120, 129-130 and tissue concentrations, 129-130, 130t in rivers, concentrations, 107 in seawater concentrations, 5t, 102-108, 104f, 106t sources, 102-104 in sediment, 116 concentrations, 60t, 104fl 108-112 forms, 108-112 sources, 108 toxicity, 127, 130 tissue concentrations, 117-125, 117t, 123t in fish consumed by humans, 128-129, 128t and produced water, 129-130, 130t toxicity, 125-129, 130 risk-based concentrations, 73t, 127, 128 Metals See also specific metals absorption channels, 38-39, 38f bioaccumulation of, 47-50 bioavailability of, 48 in sediment, 39-42 in solution, 38-39 with biochemical or physiological functions, 39t biomagnification of, 54-56 concentrations in produced water, 5-7, 5t, 34 dilution of, 26-27 EPA standards for, 73t in sediments bioavailability of, 40-42 concentrations, 26 origins of, 40 toxicity, 33, 34, 39-40, 55 risk-based concentrations, 73t, 74-75 MFO See Cytochrome P450 mixed function oxygenase (MFO) system Mollusks See also Cephalopods bioaccumulation in of alkylphenols, 209 of arsenic, 63, 64, 64t, 65, 66 of BTEX, 234, 236, 236t of cadmium, 94-95, 96-97 of chromium, 135-136 of copper, 150, 151-153 of DEHP, 219, 220, 220t of lead, 166 ofmercury, 112, l14t, 115, ll6t of metals, 49-50 of PAHs, 279, 280, 286-287, 288, 289, 292-293,292fi 296-297, 314 of radium, 196, 197 of zinc, 179, 180-181,181,189 bioconcentration factor, for PAH, 277-279, 278t biomagnification in, 54 metabolism of PAHs, 281 sensitivity of to arsenic, 72 to barium, 85 to chromium, 141 to copper, 157, 158 Index to DEHP, 222 to lead, 170, 171-172 to mercury, 126 to PAHs, 307-308 to phenols, 210 to zinc, 186, 187 tissue concentrations, 86-87 of arsenic, 68t, 69, 69t, 71, 76-78, 77t of barium, 83-84, 83t of BTEX, 240 of cadmium, 98-99, 98t of chromium, 137-138, 137t, 138t, 139t of copper, 153-155, 154t, 156, 156t, 160, 160t of DEHP, 221,221t, 223-224 of lead, 99, 154t, 160, 160t, 167-168, 169t, 170, 172, 173 of mercury, 117t, 118, 119t, 122-123, 123t, 124t, 129, 130t of PAHs, 24-25,280t, 293t, 294, 298-299, 298t, 302, 312, 313, 314-317, 315t, 316t of phenols, 214 of radium, 198, 199t, 201 t of zinc, 99, 154t, 160, 160t, 182, 183t, 184, 189 and toxicity of produced water, 33 Molybdenum, concentrations in produced water, 5t in seawater, 5t Monitoring requirements, in U.S., for western continental shelf of Gulf of Mexico, iv Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (MAH) See also BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes) in atmosphere, 228 over Exxon Valdez oil spill, 228, 229t bioaccumulation of, 233-235 sources in humans, 239 bioconcentration factors, 233,234t chemical properties, 227f 227t in crude oils and gasoline, concentrations, 226t, 227t highly-alkylated, properties of, 225-226 in produced water, environmental effects, 239-240 production and uses, 225 in seawater concentrations, 228-231,229t degradation of, 232-233 sources of, 225-228, 228-230 in sediments concentrations, 231-232, 23 It degradation of, 232-233 447 tissue concentrations, 235-236, 239-240 toxicity, 233,237-239 carcinogenic qualities, 238, 239 median and geometric mean lethal concentrations, 234t, 237, 237t risk-based concentrations, 239 MUDMAP model of produced water dilution, 23-24 N Naphthalenes, degradation in seawater, 29, 29t Naphthenes See Cyclic alkanes National Pollution Elimination System (NPDES), iv standards for produced water discharge volume limits, iv for estuaries and marine waters, 1-2 for Gulf of Mexico, iv for ocean and Upper Cook inlet, Naturally-occurring chemicals bioaccumulation, human acceleration of, iii in produced water, 2-16, 3t concentrations, 3t, 7, 8t metals, 5-7, 5t organic acids, 3t, 8-10, 9t other compounds, 14-16 petroleum hydrocarbons, 10-11 phenols, 3t, 9t, 10, 10t polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), 3t, 12-14, 15t salinity and inorganic ions, 2-5, 4t saturated (aliphatic) hydrocarbons, 3t, 9t, 11-12, 13t total organic carbon (TOC), 3t, 8, 9t volatile hydrocarbons, 11 Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM), See also Radium Nickel concentrations in produced water, 5, 5t, in seawater, 5t toxicity, 55 Niobium, bioaccumulation of, 55 Nitrogen-substituted hydrocarbons, concentrations in produced water, 14 Norm See Naturally occurring radioactive materials North Cape oil spill, toxicity of, 309 NPDES See National Pollution Elimination System O Octanol/water partition coefficient (Kow), log of bioconcentration and, 44 46, 47t for DEHP, 217 448 Bioaccumulation in Marine Organisms for MAH, 234t, 237t for mercury, 107 for monoaromatic hydrocarbons, 225-226 for PAHs, 254-255,254t, 277-278, 278t, 300t vs BCF, 286f for phenols, 206, 207 Offshore Operators Committee (OOC) model of produced water dilution, 19-20, 20t, 22 Oilfield brine See Produced water Oil spills Amoco Cadiz, PAHs in bioaccumulation of, 296 degradation of, 276 tissue concentrations, 298-299 Braer and BTEX bioabsorption, 236 and PAH bioaccumulation, 297-298, 297t Exxon Valdez BTEX concentrations in air over, 228, 229t and PAH metabolism of, 284 in sediment, 266, 268, 271 in surrounding water, 259 tissue concentrations of, 287, 290, 296, 297, 299, 302, 313 in Gulf War, and PAH bioaccumulation, 296-297 Sea Empress and PAH concentrations, 290-291 and PAH metabolism, 284 Organic acids concentrations in produced water, 3t, 8-10, 9t and toxicity, 34 Organic chemicals bioavailability of, 42-43 biomagnification of, 51-54 nonpolar bioconcentration of, 44-46, 47t classification of, 44 Oxygen scavengers amounts used and discharged, 35t toxicity, 35t Oxygen-substituted hydrocarbons, concentrations in produced water, 14 P P450 reporter gene system (RGS), PAHs and, 283-284 PAHs See Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Paraffin inhibitors amounts used and discharged, 35t concentrations in produced water, 35 toxicity, 34, 35t PCBs See Polychlorinated biphenyls PCDDs See Polychlorinated dibenzo-pdioxins PCDF See Polychlorinated debenzofurans Pesticides, chlorinated hydrocarbon, biomagnification in, 53-54 Petroleum, toxicity, 308 Petroleum hydrocarbons in produced water, concentrations, 10-11 in sediments, concentrations, 26 and toxicity, 33 Phenanthrenes, degradation in seawater, 29, 29t Phenols See also Alkylphenols bioaccumulation of, 207-209 bioavailability of, 42-43,207 bioconcentration of, 47, 209-210 bioconcentration factor, 208, 214 chemical properties and forms, 203,204, 205f 206-207 degradation, 204-205, 213-214 EPA standards for, 73t in estuaries and coastal waters, degradation, 204-205,206 industrial uses and production, 203-204, 213 in oils and fuels, 213 concentrations, 204, 204t in produced water concentrations, 3t, 9t, 1O, 10t, 214 environmental effects, 213-214 in seawater concentrations, 205 degradation of, 28, 29 sources, 205-206, 206t in sediments, concentrations, 206-207, 214 toxicity, 203,210-213, 211-213, 21 lt, 214, 309 risk-based concentrations, 73t, 213,214 Photooxidation of produced water chemicals, 27, 28f Plankton bioaccumulation in of cadmium, 93-94 of chromium, 136 of PAHs, 292-293,292f of radium, 195, 196 biomagnification in, 52-53 sensitivity of to copper, 157 to mercury, 125-126 to produced water, 31-32, 32t to zinc, 186 tissue concentrations of arsenic, 68t, 69 Index 449 of barium, 83, 83t, 84 of cadmium, 98t of chromium, 138t of lead, 168, 169t of radium, 199t of zinc, 183t Plants bioaccumulation in of arsenic, 62 of lead, 167 of radium, 196-197 sensitivity of to arsenic, 72 to mercury, 126 to zinc, 186 tissue concentrations of arsenic, 68-69, 68t of cadmium, 98t of chromium, 139t of copper, 156, 156t of lead, 168, 169t of mercury, 118, 124t of radium, 198, 199t of zinc, 183t, 184 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) bioconcentration of, 44 biomagnification of, 51-52 in sediment, concentrations, 60t Polychlorinated debenzofurans (PCDF), 52-53, 53f Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), biomagnification of, 52-53, 53f Polychlorinated organic chemicals, 44 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) alkyl forms, in petroleum, 245 in atmosphere degradation, 248, 252 deposition processes and rates, 251-253,253t sources, 249-250 types and quantities, 247-248, 250-251,252 bioaccumulation, 287f 314 metabolism, 281-287 net accumulations, 288-293 near oil spills, 287, 290, 296-299, 297t, 302 uptake, 277-280, 278t bioavailability, 42, 279-280 and degradation, 275-276 of photooxidation products, 304 in sediments, 248-249 bioconcentration factors, 277-278, 278t biomagnification in, 54 in cigarette smoke, 250, 25 It definition of, 12 degradation of and bioavailability, 275-276 by microbes, 271-277, 273f by photooxidation, 269-271 rates of, 276-277 in estuaries and coastal waters concentrations, by phase, 255, 256, 258, 259, 259t in sediment, 267-268 formation processes, 241-243,242f petrogenic behavior in seawater, 248-249 in sediment, 266-267 sources and quantities of, 243-246, 244t, 246f in produced water concentrations, 3t, 12-14, 15t, 260-261, 261t, 313 environmental effects, 313-318 sedimentary deposition, 268-269 pyrogenic behavior in seawater, 248-249 in sediment, 266 sources and quantities of, 247-253 in rain water, 251-252 in rivers and lakes, 261 concentrations, by phase, 254, 258-259 in seawater annual amounts inputted, 246, 253 behavior and chemical properties, 248-249, 253,254-255, 254t concentrations, by phase, 254-261, 257t, 260t degradation, 28-29, 29-30, 29t dilution of, 23, 24-25 near Exxon Valdez oil spill, 259 quality criteria for, 303,303t sources, 246, 247, 248, 253 in sediments bioavailability, 248-249 chemical properties, 248-249 concentrations, 26, 26t, 60t, 242-243, 266-269, 280, 280t, 304 degradation of, 272-277 environmental effects, 248 after Exxon Valdez oil spill, 266, 268, 271,296 near Gulf War oil spill, 267 photooxidation products, 304-305, 307 sorption processes, 262-266, 265t sources, 241-243,255, 266 types, 241-243 solubility, 255-256 sources, 266 formation processes, 241-243,242f petrogenic, 243-246, 244t, 246f 450 Bioaccumulation in Marine Organisms in seawater, 246, 247, 248 in sediments, 241-243,255,266 tissue concentrations, 293-299, 293t, 298t critical body residues, 300-301, 30 I t near Exxon Valdez oil spill, 313 near produced water sources, 314-317, 315t, 316t, 318t toxicity, 12-13 acutely lethal concentrations, 302-303 in biodegradation, 272 carcinogenic and mutagenic properties, 245,249, 252, 274, 283,283t, 285, 310-311 in complex mixtures, 308-309 critical body residues, 300-301, 301 t ERL and ERM, 303,304t median lethal concentrations, 299-300, 300t, 301t phototoxicity (type I and II reactions), 304-308 risk-based concentrations, 311-312, 312t in seafoods, 311-313 unmodified forms, 299-304 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons See Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Potassium, and toxicity, 33 Precipitation of produced water chemicals, 27, 28f Produced water See also specific topics amount discharged, 18-19, 18t definition of, dilution of empirical dilution, 22-27 modeled, 19-22, 20t, 23-24 sources and treatment of, 1-2 Production chemicals in produced water, 2, 16-18 amounts used, injected, and discharged, 17t, 35t injection process and solubility, 17, 35 toxicity, 34-35, 35t forms, 7, 191 in ground water, concentrations, 192 in produced water concentrations, 3t, 7, 8t, 200 environmental effects, 200-201, 201 t sedimentary deposits from, 194-195, 200-201 properties of, 191-192, 193 in rivers, concentrations, 192 in scale deposits, 195 in seawater concentrations, 193, 193t, 199 forms, 191 sources, 192, 196 in sediment, 27 concentrations, 194-195 environmental effects, 200-201 tissue concentrations, 198, 199t near produced water discharges, 201 t toxicity, 199-200 risk-based concentrations, 73t, 200 RBC See Risk-based concentrations Reptiles, bioaccumulation of copper, 153 RGS See P450 reporter gene system Risk-based concentrations (RBC) for arsenic, 73t, 74-75 for barium, 73t, 86 for BTEX, 73t, 239 for cadmium, 73t, 101 for chromium, 73t, 141 for copper, 73 t, 159 for DEHP, 73t, 223 formulas for carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic chemicals, 74 for lead, 73t, 172 for MAHs, 239 for mercury, 73t, 127, 128 for PAHs, 311-312, 312t for phenols, 73t, 213,214 for radium, 73t, 200 for zinc, 73t, 187-188 R S Radioactive materials See also Naturally occurring radioactive materials; Radium concentrations in produced water, 3t, 7, 8t monitoring requirements (NPDES), iv Radium bioaccumulation of, 195-198 dilution of, 22, 27 EPA standards for, 73t in estuaries and coastal waters, 193 concentrations, 193t, 194 in sediment, 194-195 sources, 192 Salinity concentrations in produced water, 2-5, 4t and toxicity, 33 Saturated (aliphatic) hydrocarbons in produced water, concentrations, 3t, 9t, 11-12, 13t in seawater, degradation of, 28-29, 29-30, 29t in sediments, concentrations, 26 toxicity, 309 Scale deposits, radium in, 195 Scale inhibitors agents and purposes, 17 Index 451 amounts used, injected, and discharged, 17t, 35t concentrations in produced water, 35 toxicity, 35, 35t Sea Empress oil spill and PAH concentrations, in birds, 290-291 and PAH metabolism, 284 Sea urchins See Echinoderms Selenium, toxicity, 55 Seston, biomagnification in, 52-53 Shrimp See Crustaceans Snails See Mollusks Soot, PAHs in, 247 Sponges, tissue concentrations of lead, 169t, 170 of PAHs, 293t of zinc, 183t, 184 Standards EPA for arsenic, 57 for BTEX, 73t, 238 for DEHP, 73t, 222 for metals, 73, 73t for phenols, 73t for radium, 73 t for produced water (NPDES) for Australia, for Mediterranean Sea, Arabian Gulf, and Asia, for North Sea, purpose of, iv for U.S (NPDES) discharge volume limits, iv for estuaries and marine waters, 1-2 for ocean and Upper Cook inlet, for western continental shelf of Gulf of Mexico, iv Starfish See Echinoderms Sulfate and bioavailability of metals, 40 in produced water, concentrations, 3-4, 4t, Sulfides and bioavailability of metals, 41 in produced water, concentrations and importance of, 4, 4t Sulfur-substituted hydrocarbons, concentrations in produced water, 14 Superhydrophobic compounds, 46 Surfactants amounts used and discharged, 35t concentrations in produced water, 35 toxicity, 35t T Tin, toxicity, 55 Tissue concentrations See specific chemicals TOC See Total organic carbon Toluene See BTEX Total organic carbon (TOC), concentrations in produced water, 3t, 8, 9t Toxicity of produced water, 29-32, 30t See also specific chemicals causes of, 33-34 factors affecting, 37 production chemicals, 34-35, 35t by species, 31-32, 32t tolerated levels, 33 Trophic transfer and biomagnification, 50 definition of, 50 Turtles bioaccumulation in, of radium, 196 tissue concentrations of chromium, 140, 140t of copper, 154t, 157 of lead, 154t, 170 of mercury, 121 of zinc, 154t, 185 V Vanadium in produced water, concentrations, 5, 5t in seawater, concentrations, 5t toxicity, 55 Volatile acids, degradation in seawater, 29t Volatile hydrocarbons, concentrations in produced water, 11 W Weathering See Degradation Worms bioaccumulation in arsenic, 65 of cadmium, 97 of copper, 150, 151,152 of DEHP, 220t of lead, 166 of mercury, 113-114, l14t of PAHs, 279, 280, 288 of radium, 196 of zinc, 180, 181 sensitivity of, to chromium, 141 tissue concentrations of arsenic, 68t, 69t of cadmium, 98t of chromium, 138, 139t of copper, 156, 156t of DEHP, 221,221t of lead, 169t ofmercury, l17t, 118, l19t, 123t, 124t of PAHs, 280t, 293t of zinc, 183t 452 Bioaccumulation in Marine Organisms X Xylenes See BTEX Z Zinc bioaccumulation of, 179-182, 189 bioavailability of, 187 in estuaries and coastal waters concentrations, 176 in sediments, 177-178 toxicity, 186-187 in produced water concentrations, 5, 5t, 6, 34, 188 environmental effects, 188-189 sedimentary deposits from, 178 in rivers, concentrations, 175 in seawater concentrations, 5t, 175-178, 176t forms, 176-177 sources, 175 in sediment, 27 concentrations, 60t, 177-179 environmental effects, 188-189 forms, 178-179 tissue concentrations, 137t, 138t, 139t, 154t, 160, 160t, 182-185, 183t toxicity, 55, 186-189 ERL and ERM, 187, 188-189 risk-based concentrations, 73t, 187-188