Mems fundamental technology and applications

Tai Lieu Chat Luong FUNDAMENTAL TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS Devices, Circuits, and Systems Series Editor Krzysztof Iniewski CMOS Emerging Technologies Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada PUBLISHED TITLES: Atomic Nanoscale Technology in the Nuclear Industry Taeho Woo Biological and Medical Sensor Technologies Krzysztof Iniewski Electrical Solitons: Theory, Design, and Applications David Ricketts and Donhee Ham Electronics for Radiation Detection Krzysztof Iniewski Graphene, Carbon Nanotubes, and Nanostuctures: Techniques and Applications James E Morris and Krzysztof Iniewski High-Speed Photonics Interconnects Lukas Chrostowski and Krzysztof Iniewski Integrated Microsystems: Electronics, Photonics, and Biotechnology Krzysztof Iniewski Internet Networks: Wired, Wireless, and Optical Technologies Krzysztof Iniewski Low Power Emerging Wireless Technologies Lukas Chrostowski and Krzysztof Iniewski MEMS: Fundamental Technology and Applications Vikas Choudhary and Krzysztof Iniewski Nano-Semiconductors: Devices and Technology Krzysztof Iniewski Nanoelectronic Device Applications Handbook James E Morris and Krzysztof Iniewski Optical, Acoustic, Magnetic, and Mechanical Sensor Technologies Krzysztof Iniewski Radiation Effects in Semiconductors Krzysztof Iniewski Semiconductor Radiation Detection Systems Krzysztof Iniewski Smart Sensors for Industrial Applications Krzysztof Iniewski Telecommunication Networks Eugenio Iannone FORTHCOMING TITLES: Novel Advances in Microsystems Technologies and Their Applications Laurent A Francis and Krzysztof Iniewski Nanoelectronics: Devices, Circuits, and Systems Nikos Konofaos Building Sensor Networks: From Design to Applications Ioanis Nikolaidis and Krzysztof Iniewski Embedded and Networking Systems: Design, Software, and Implementation Gul N Khan and Krzysztof Iniewski Medical Imaging: Technology and Applications Troy Farncombe and Krzysztof Iniewski Nanoscale Semiconductor Memories: Technology and Applications Santosh K Kurinec and Krzysztof Iniewski Nanoplasmonics: Advanced Device Applications James W M Chon and Krzysztof Iniewski MIMO Power Line Communications: Narrow and Broadband Standards, EMC, and Advanced Processing Lars Torsten Berger, Andreas Schwager, Pascal Pagani, and Daniel Schneider Energy Harvesting with Functional Materials and Microsystems Madhu Bhaskaran, Sharath Sriram, and Krzysztof Iniewski Mobile Point-of-Care Monitors and Diagnostic Device Design Walter Karlen and Krzysztof Iniewski Integrated Power Devices and TCAD Simulation Yue Fu, Zhanming Li, Wai Tung Ng, and Johnny K.O Sin CMOS: Front-End Electronics for Radiation Sensors Angelo Rivetti Radio Frequency Integrated Circuit Design Sebastian Magierowski FUNDAMENTAL TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS Edited by VIKAS CHOUDHARY KRZYSZTOF INIEWSKI Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc and is used with permission The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Version Date: 20130305 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-1582-6 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http:// www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Dedicated to Anu, Aryaman, Anushka, and my parents Vikas Choudhary Contents Preface .xi Editors xvii Contributors xix SECTION I  Breakthrough Technology Chapter Microsystems to Nano-Microsystems: A Technological Breakthrough Daniel Hauden Chapter HfO2-Based High-κ Dielectrics for Use in MEMS Applications 21 Bing Miao, Rajat Mahapatra, Nick Wright, and Alton Horsfall Chapter Piezoelectric Thin Films for MEMS Applications 41 Isaku Kanno Chapter CMOS Systems and Interfaces for Sub-Deg/Hr Microgyroscopes 69 Ajit Sharma, Mohammad Faisal Zaman, and Farrokh Ayazi Chapter Bulk Acoustic Wave Gyroscopes 91 Houri Johari Chapter Mechanically Flexible Interconnects and TSVs: Applications in CMOS/MEMS Integration 111 Hyung Suk Yang, Paragkumar Thadesar, Chaoqi Zhang, and Muhannad Bakir Chapter Modeling of Piezoelectric MEMS Vibration Energy Harvesters 131 Marcin Marzencki and Skandar Basrour Chapter Interface Circuits for Capacitive MEMS Gyroscopes 161 Hongzhi Sun and Huikai Xie Chapter Electromechanical Loops for High-Performance and Robust Gyroscope System Design 183 Vikas Choudhary, Abhinav Dikshit, Anjan Kumar, Deva Phanindra Kumar, Saravanan Kamatchi, and Nemai Biswas ix 442 Automatic level control (ALC), 75 Automotive applications, 433 B Back-end-of-the-line (BEOL), 119 Ball-grid array (BGA), 308 flip chip processes, 117 Bandgap (BG), Bandwidth (BW), 72, 166 of detectable rotation rate, 168 of detectable rotation signal, 167 of drive mode, 166 of noise folding, 177 unmatched and matched modes, 167 Barkhausen criterion, 166 BAW, see Bulk-acoustic waves (BAW) BEM, see Boundary element methods (BEM) BEOL, see Back-end-of-the-line (BEOL) Berkeley’s z-axis vibratory rate gyroscope, 72, 73 BG, see Bandgap (BG) BGA, see Ball-grid array (BGA) Bias drift, 72 instability, 403 stability, 72 Bio-logging, 314, 315 Biosensor application, 117 Blackbody radiation, 385 Body motion analysis (BMA), 401 Body motion detection, 408 Bottom-up nanotechnologies, 15-16 Boundary element methods (BEM), 424 BOX, see Buried oxide (BOX) Bulk acoustic wave gyroscope (BAW gyroscope), 91, 419 angular gain estimation, 95–96 ANSYS simulation results, 102 applications, 91 dynamic range, 98–99 fabrication method, 103 frequency characterization, 103, 104 implementation of, 101 mode matching, 103, 104 performance characterization, 104 process flow, 103 quality factor characterization, 104–106 effect of release hole sizes, 102 resolution analysis, 98 sensitivity analysis, 96–98 thermoelastic damping, 99–101 Bulk acoustic wave resonators (BAW resonators), 206 configurations, 206, 207 electrical performance, 208 electromechanical coupling coefficient, 213–214, 216 FBAR, 207, 208 free-standing, 206 GSG geometry, 220 high-Q SMRs, 220–223 impedance characteristics of, 209 measurement setup, 219 MIM capacitor, 209 performance parameters for, 213 piezoelectricity to impedance curves, 208 quality factor, 214–216, 220 Index resonance frequency, 206 SMR, 207, 208 TOSL, 220 VNA measurement, 220 Bulk-acoustic waves (BAW), 285, 287, 418 BAW modeling, 209–210 filters, 205 mBVD model, 212–213 physics-based 1D Mason model, 210–212 sensors, 421–422 thin-film-based, 418 for wired sensor developments, 418 Bulk-mechanical technologies, 70 Buried oxide (BOX), 92 Butterworth Van Dyke model (BVD model), 212 BW, see Bandwidth (BW) C C−f measurements, see Capacitance–frequency measurements (C−f measurements) CA, see Collision avoidance (CA) Cantilever beam model, 142; see also Piezoelectric MEMS vibration energy harvesters analytical modeling results, 152 boundary conditions, 145 comparison with experimental data, 148 comparison with FEM, 148 damping types, 146 geometry of modeled device, 143 layer composition of beam, 144–145 MEMS energy-harvesting device extracted parameters, 150 MEMS specificity, 142 modeled cantilever beam structure, 144 modeling results, 148 optimal resistance values, 149 optimal thickness ratio, 152 piezoelectric coupling, 145–146 piezoelectric layer thickness, 151 piezoelectric MEMS energy generator underetch, 150 power generation, 149 result comparison, 151 structure optimization, 151 system dynamics, 146–147 thin-layer piezoelectric materials, 142 Capacitance–frequency measurements (C−f measurements), 31 Capacitance–voltage characteristics (C–V characteristics); see also Current–voltage characteristics (I−V characteristics) as-fabricated capacitors, 30 control experiment, 31 DC bias dependence, 30 dielectric constant, 30 dispersive behavior, 29 HfO2 capacitors, 30 MIM capacitor structures, 29 oxygen vacancy defect, 30–31 zero-biased capacitance density, 29 Capacitance–voltage measurements capacitor S-2, 26 DC electric field, 25 frequency-dependent capacitance, 26 Index frequency function, 26 on MIM capacitors, 25 temperatures equation, 25 voltage nonlinearity, 26 Capacitive MEMS gyroscopes Coriolis effect, 161–164 drive mode excitation, 165–167 matched vs unmatched modes, 167–168 Capacitive MEMS ultrasonic transducer (CMUT), 228, 230 AoA estimators, 235–236 covariance matrix, 236 low-frequency ultrasonic signals, 235 sensor array, 235 Capacitive sensors, 355 CMOS microelectronic circuits, 358 cross-section, 358 MEMS fingerprint sensor, 356 normal and shear forces, 357 PDMS, 357 pixel FIB cross-section, 356 on polyimide flexible substrate, 356 schematic view, 357 variable capacitor, 355 wearable-tactile-sensor glove, 357 Capacitive transduction beam resonator, 276 electrode overlap area, 277 electrostatic force, 276 filtering process, 275 Capacitors, 21, 22 Carbon contamination AES and SEM, 25 Auger depth profile, 24 hafnium deposition, 24 high-κ dielectric materials, 24 oxygen vacancy concentration, 24 SiO2/Ti/Pt/HfO2, 25 Carbon microcoil (CMC), 364 Carbon nanotube forest (CNT forest), 341 Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA), 406 CCD, see Charge coupled device (CCD) CDS, see Correlated double sampling (CDS) Charge-sensitive amplifier (CSA), 173 feedback resistors, 173 SNR at output, 174 transistor size equations, 174 Charge coupled device (CCD), 268 Chebyshev filters transfer functions, 294, 295 Chemical and mechanical planarization (CMP), 126 Chemical etching process, Chemical sensor, 435, 436 hydrogen detection, 436, 437 SAW propagation conditions, 436, 437 Chemical solution deposition (CSD), 42 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 42 Chopper stabilization (CHS), 175, 176 Cladding fabrication process, 124 Clamped–clamped beam resonator, 286 Closed-loop control, 430 Closed-membrane-based micro hot-plate emitters, 382 CMC, see Carbon microcoil (CMC) CMOS, see Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) 443 CMP, see Chemical and mechanical planarization (CMP); Prechemical mechanical polishing (CMP) CMUT, see Capacitive MEMS ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) CNT forest, see Carbon nanotube forest (CNT forest) Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), 117, 339 Collision avoidance (CA), 406 Comb resonator, 285 COM model, see Coupling of mode model (COM model) Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS), 112, 133, 184, 208, 299, 428 circuitry, 70 clamped–clamped beam resonator, 300, 302 novel process, 299, 300 Q-factor, 301 SEM picture, 301 tuning scheme, 300 Complete system modeling, 153, 154–155 design flow, 153–154 evaluation, 155 for MEMS gyroscope, 197 Monte-Carlo simulation results, 155–156 piezoelectric generator, 153 process variation, 155 steps in A-HDL model creation, 154 Conductive nanoparticles, 363 Conductive polymers (CP), 362 CMCs, 364, 365 conductive filler particles, 362, 363 conductive nanoparticles, 363 fabrication technique, 364 ionic polymer layer, 362 IPMC sensing mechanism, 362 MEMS tactile sensors, 365 novel and bioinspired approach, 364 percolation threshold, 363 polymer-based tactile sensors, 362 sensor array, 364 source electrode, 363 source–drain electrode, 363 Consumer electronics applications, 70 Continuous-time sensing, 168; see also Discrete-time sampling input impedance, 169 open-loop amplifiers, 169–172 TIAs, 170, 172–174 variable capacitors and interface circuits interface, 168–169 Continuous self-test (CST), 195–196 Continuous time (CT), 79 Coriolis acceleration, 161 Coriolis effect, 161 capacitive MEMS vibratory gyroscope, 163 capacitive sensor, 164 Coriolis force, 162–163 driving force, 164 governing equations, 163 inertial frame of reference, 162 movements in sense mode, 164 moving particle trajectories, 162 vibratory gyroscope model, 163 Coriolis vibratory gyroscope (CVG), 76 Coriolis-based MEMS gyroscope system, 187–188 Coriolis-induced displacement, 168 444 Coriolis-induced sense mode deflections, 71 Correlated double sampling (CDS), 175, 176 Coupling factors, 296 Coupling of mode model (COM model), 424 CP, see Conductive polymers (CP) Critical coupling, 139 analytical modeling results, 139–140 electromechanical coupling coefficient, 139 Crystal-based sensors, 422 CSA, see Charge-sensitive amplifier (CSA) CSD, see Chemical solution deposition (CSD) CSMA, see Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) CST, see Continuous self-test (CST) CT, see Continuous time (CT) CTE, see Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) Current–voltage characteristics (I−V characteristics), 31, 32; see also Capacitance–voltage characteristics (C–V characteristics) Curved beam design, 118 CVD, see Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) CVG, see Coriolis vibratory gyroscope (CVG) D Damping gas, 282 influence, 137–138 TED, 99–101 types, 146 Data acquisition system DPSS interference signal, 261, 262 driving signal, 259 interferogram, 260, 266 resonance operation, 260 DBA, see Dynamic body acceleration (DBA) DDS, see Direct digital synthesizer (DDS) DE, see Dielectric elastomers (DE) Dead reckoning technique DBA, 324 key phases in stride, 325 terrestrial animal locomotions, 325 velocity vector, 326 Deep reactive ionic etching (DRIE), 4, 56, 150, 251 Defect density analysis, 27, 28, 29 Debye length calculations, 28 double-layer capacitance expression, 27 interatomic distance, 27, 28 metal–oxide interface, 29 MIM capacitors S-1 and S-2, 28 relative variation of capacitance, 28 Deformable mirror (DM), 61 Deionized water (DI water), 337 Delay-line-based approaches, 425 FEMTO-ST, 425, 426 open-loop strategy diagram, 426 programmable attenuator, 426–427 spectral transfer function, 425 to stabilize oscillators, 425 using SYPD-2 phase detector, 427 DFT, see Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) Diamond-disk resonator, 288 Dielectric elastomers (DE), 372 Dielectric properties, 44; see also Transverse piezoelectric properties Index d- and e-forms expression, 46–47 mechanical properties, 47 P−E hysteresis curves, 46 piezoelectric thin films, 46 PZT, 44 transverse piezoelectric coefficient, 47 unimorph cantilever, 47 XRD patterns, 45 Digital gyroscope; see also Vibratory gyroscope ideal CMOS system design, 187–188 system design of, 187 Digital signal-processing (DSP), 241, 431 Diode-pumped solid-state (DPSS), 256 Direct digital synthesizer (DDS), 426 Direct-coupled motions, 179–180 Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), 405 Discrete-time sampling, 174 CDS approach, 176 CHS approach, 175, 176 noise folding, 176–177 noise spectral density, 175 SNR after sampling, 177 typical SC amplifier, 175 Discrete Fourier transform (DFT), 242 Dispersion behavior, 23 DI water, see Deionized water (DI water) DM, see Deformable mirror (DM) DPSS, see Diode-pumped solid-state (DPSS) Draper Laboratory’s silicon-on-glass tuning fork gyroscope, 72, 73 DRIE, see Deep reactive ionic etching (DRIE) Drift over time and temperature, 190, 191 Drive channels, 84, 85 Drive loop, 192 amplitude regulation loop, 195 oscillator-based loop, 192–194 phase issues in, 180 PLL-based, 194–195 Drive mode excitation, 165 bandwidth of mode, 166 Barkhausen criterion, 166 displacement amplitude, 166 drive mode transfer function, 165 electrostatic force, 165 energy stored in capacitor, 165 interface circuits, 166 self-oscillation loop, 166, 167 Drive phase correction, 191 error, 189, 190 DSP, see Digital signal-processing (DSP) DSSS, see Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) Dynamic body acceleration (DBA), 314 Dynamic range, 72 analytical estimation, 99 by front-end T-network TIA, 83 in gyroscopes, 98, 99 microgyroscope, 72 E EAP, see Electroactive polymers (EAP) Effective quality factor (Q), 99 EIT, see Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) Index Electrical impedance tomography (EIT), 362 Electrical parameters carrier relaxation frequency, 34 defect densities, 34, 35 electrode polarization model, 32 failed devices, 33–34 good devices, 32, 33 leakage current densities, 35 radiation-induced changes in, 31, 32 voltage dependence, 33 Electrical signal, 430 Electroacoustic coupling, 419 Electroactive polymer actuators (EAP actuators), 371–372 DE, 372 electromechanical actuators, 372 HCDE actuator, 373 stack actuator, 372 static and dynamic actuation, 373 tactile actuator, 373 Electroactive polymers (EAP), 351 Electrode polarization mechanism, 27 Electromagnetic wave (EM wave), 405, 430 Electromechanical coupling coefficient, 213–214, 276 FOM, 216 piezoelectric film quality, 214 for piezoelectric material, 214 Electromechanical film transducers (EMFi transducers), 227, 230 Electromechanical oscillator, 75, 76 Electronic control systems drive loop, 75, 76 in gyroscopes, 75 micromachined vibratory gyroscope system, 75 mode matching, 76 quadrature nulling, 76 self-test and trim, 76 sense channel, 76 Electronic noise equivalent rotation (ENEΩ), 71 Electronic stability control (ESC), 200, 201 Electroplating process, 120 Electrostatic microactuator, 56 Elliptic waves, 420 EM wave, see Electromagnetic wave (EM wave) EMFi transducers, see Electromechanical film transducers (EMFi transducers) Energy-blocking parameter, 33 ENEΩ, see Electronic noise equivalent rotation (ENEΩ) Epitaxial substrates, 43 ESC, see Electronic stability control (ESC) External location-aware devices, 401–402 F Fabricated microelectromechanical resonators CMOS, 299–301 free–free beam resonators, 301–302 radial mode disk resonators, 302–304 resonator-based systems, 304–309 Fabrication process, 51, 230 microspectrometer microscopic image, 256 photolithography process, 254 schematic process flow, 255 Fast adaptation receptor (FA receptor), 352 445 Fast Fourier transform technique (FFT technique), 428 Fast heating process, 387 Fast transient operation, 381 Fault monitors, 196 FBAR, see Film bulk acoustic resonator (FBAR) FBG, see Fiber-Bragg grating (FBG) FEA, see Finite element analysis (FEA) FEM, see Finite element method (FEM) FeRAM, 42 Ferroelectric properties, 44 d- and e-forms expression, 46–47 materials, 45 mechanical properties, 47 P−E hysteresis curves, 46 piezoelectric thin films, 46 PZT, 44 transverse piezoelectric coefficient, 47 unimorph cantilever, 47 XRD patterns, 45 FFT technique, see Fast Fourier transform technique (FFT technique) FHSS modulation, see Frequency-hopped spread spectrum modulation (FHSS modulation) Fiber tactile sensor, 357 Fiber-Bragg grating (FBG), 365 FIB process, see Focused ion beam process (FIB process) Field programmable gate arrays system (FPGA system), 262 Figure of merit (FOM), 216 Film bulk acoustic resonator (FBAR), 207, 422 Mason model for, 212 robustness, 208 Fingerprint region, 397 Finite element analysis (FEA), 423 Finite element method (FEM), 134, 383 acceptable complexity, 390 analysis, 389, 390, 391 buckling mode shapes, 391 hot-plate temperature, 390, 391 micro hot plates design process, 389 SOI wafer, 389 standard suspension bar design, 389 stress–strain behavior, 391 suspension bars, 391 temperature distribution, 390 thermal radiation, 390 Flexible I/Os, 116, 117 Flexural plate wave (FPW), 59 Flicker noise, 403 Fluorescein, 338 Focused ion beam process (FIB process), FOM, see Figure of merit (FOM) Fourier transform-based spectrometers (FT spectrometers), 249 Fourier transform infrared spectrometers (FTIR spectrometers), 249 lamellar grating interferometer, 251 MEMS-driven review, 250 Michelson interferometer, 250 Fourier’s law, 384 FPGA system, see Field programmable gate arrays system (FPGA system) FPW, see Flexural plate wave (FPW) 446 Free–free beam resonator, 286, 302, 303 polysilicon resonator, 301 quality factor, 302, 303 Frequency pulling resonant frequency, 281 spring softening, 280 Frequency shift keying transmitter (FSK transmitter), 307, 308, 309 cap wafer, 308 free–free beam resonator, 308 output center frequency, 309 Frequency-hopped spread spectrum modulation (FHSS modulation), 228 FSK transmitter, see Frequency shift keying transmitter (FSK transmitter) FT spectrometers, see Fourier transform-based spectrometers (FT spectrometers) FTIR spectrometers, see Fourier transform infrared spectrometers (FTIR spectrometers) Functional materials, 41 G Gain–bandwidth (GBW), 172 Gallium nitride (GaN), 361 Gaming, 198 GaN, see Gallium nitride (GaN) Gas damping, 282 Gauge factor (GF), 358 GBW, see Gain–bandwidth (GBW) GF, see Gauge factor (GF) Giant magneto resistance (GMR), 5, 369 Global positioning system (GPS), 70, 320, 402 GMR, see Giant magneto resistance (GMR) GPS, see Global positioning system (GPS) Gyroscope, 69, 184 demonstration, 70 drift over time and temperature, 190 drive phase error, 189, 190 electronic control systems in, 75–76 MEMS gyroscopes applications, 70 micromachined gyroscopes, 72–74 offset error, 189 performance metrics, 71–72 principle of operation, 70 quadrature error, 189 signal and error spectrum, 189 Gyro sensors, 42 H Hafnium deposition, 24 Hair follicle receptors, 352 HARPSS process, see High-aspect ratio poly-and singlecrystalline silicon process (HARPSS process) HBAR, see High-overtone bulk acoustic resonator (HBAR) HCDE, see Hydrostatically coupled dielectric elastomers (HCDE) Heater sensor layout design, 388–389 material considerations, 388 HF, see Hydrofluoric acid (HF) HfO2 thin film fabrication, 22 capacitors to temperature, 23, 24 Index deposition and thermally grown layers, 23–24 deposition techniques, 22–23 PVD deposition approaches, 22 High-aspect ratio poly-and single-crystalline silicon process (HARPSS process), 74 High-overtone bulk acoustic resonator (HBAR), 422 High-Q solidly mounted resonators, 220 comparisons between impedance curves, 221, 222 He-ion microscope image, 221 limitation with US-PCS standard, 220–221 with optimized reflector stacks, 221 quality factor scaling, 222–223 shear-optimized stacks, 223 High-voltage (HV), 188 High-κ dielectric materials, 24 High-κ gate dielectrics, 22 Hollow-disk ring resonator, 289 Hostile environment, 22 Hot-plate suspension, 386 Human pedestrian locomotion inertial measurement unit Mti, 326 linear velocity estimation, 328 measured acceleration squared norm, 327 3D walking trajectory, 326 Human skin receptors, 353 HV, see High-voltage (HV) Hydrofluoric acid (HF), 255 Hydrogel microstructures, 335 Hydrogel RF actuation fabricated sample LC heater circuit, 336 using fluorescein, 338 frequency dependence, 337 hydrogel and Cirlex surfaces, 336, 337 hydrogel microstructures, 335 PNIPAM, 335 preliminary release tests, 337 UV light, 336 wireless LC heater circuit, 335 wireless release control, 338 Hydrogen detection, 436, 437 Hydrostatically coupled dielectric elastomers (HCDE), 372 Hysteresis, 354 I I−V characteristics, see Current–voltage characteristics (I−V characteristics) IC, see Integrated circuit (IC) Ideal CMOS system design, 187–188 IDT, see Interdigital transducer (IDT) IFA, see Inverted-F antenna (IFA) IL, see Insertion losses (IL) Implantable drug-delivery devices, 331 fabricated sample LC heater circuit, 336 using fluorescein, 338 frequency dependence, 337 hydrogel and Cirlex surfaces, 336, 337 hydrogel microstructures, 335 PNIPAM, 335 preliminary release tests, 337 UV light, 336 wireless LC heater circuit, 335 wireless release control, 338 447 Index IMU, see Inertial measurement unit (IMU) In-phase/quadrature demodulator (I/Q demodulator), 427 Industrial, scientific, and medical band (ISM band), 428 Inertial measurement unit (IMU), 70, 314, 315, 321, 401 Allan deviation, 404 complementary filter efficiency, 321 difference between calculated quaternion, 323 external location-aware devices, 401–402 gyroscope error sources, 403 inertial and magnetic measurements, 322 inertial navigation, 402, 403 using low-power wireless transceivers, 402 MEMS accelerometer, 403 MEMS IMU error characteristics, 403, 404 quaternion estimation, 320 Inertial navigation, 402, 403 Inertial sensor node (ISN), 401 antenna, 408–409 duty cycles, 412 energy consumption, 410 event-trigger, 410 hardware design, 407–408 movement detection cycle, 410 nodes, 414 optimal power-saving scenario, 412 software components, 409 structure and measured antenna parameters, 411 Tiny OS, 409 WSN-enabled, 407 Infrared (IR), 343 Insertion losses (IL), 425 Integrated circuit (IC), 22, 56, 273, 432 Integration methods, 113 CMOS and MEMS hybrid integration, 114, 115 CMOS and MEMS monolithic integration, 113 contamination concerns, 114 conventional integration methods, 115 hybrid integration, 114–115 integration method and 3D integration, 115, 116 I/O and 3D bonding technologies, 115 MEMS integration stress, 116 monolithic integration, 113 pad capacitance, 114 process limitations, 115 3D integration, 116 Interatomic distances, 34, 35 Interdigital transducer (IDT), 59, 419 Interface contamination, 24 carbon contamination, 24, 25 changes in electrical parameters, 25, 26 defect density analysis, 27, 28, 29 International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), 24 Interrogation range, 428 Interrogation techniques, 424, 425 wired approach, 425–428 wireless approach, 428–433 Intradermal medical injector, 12 Inverted-F antenna (IFA), 408 Ion-polymer metal composite (IPMC), 362 Ionomer membrane porous silicon, 13 IPMC, see Ion-polymer metal composite (IPMC) I/Q demodulator, see In-phase/quadrature demodulator (I/Q demodulator) IR, see Infrared (IR) Irradiations, 31 effects, 32 MIM capacitors, 33 ISM band, see Industrial, scientific, and medical band (ISM band) ISN, see Inertial sensor node (ISN) ITRS, see International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) K k2eff, see Electromechanical coupling coefficient Kirchhoff’s law, 385 L Lamellar grating interferometer diffracted wave amplitude, 251, 252 Folded-beam suspension structure, 254 MEMS-driven, 253–254 spectral resolution, 253 Laplace response, 232 LCST, see Lower critical solution temperature (LCST) Lead zirconium titanate (PZT), 41, 208, 360 crystal structure, 43, 44 rf-magnetron sputtering, 42 thin films, 41, 42, 59 Lead-free piezoelectric thin films, 53 ferroelectric perovskite materials, 53 KNN films on MgO and Si, 55 KNN/MgO or KNN/Si unimorph cantilever, 54, 55 KNN thin films, 54 Rf-magnetron sputtering, 53 transverse piezoelectric coefficient, 55 Leakage current density, 33 LED, see Light-emitting diode (LED) Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm (LMA), 314 LIGA techniques, see Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung techniques (LIGA techniques) Light-emitting diode (LED), 269, 365 LiNbO3, see Lithium niobate (LiNbO3) Linearity, 354 Lithium niobate (LiNbO3), 430 Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung techniques (LIGA techniques), LMA, see Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm (LMA) LNA, see Low-noise amplifier (LNA) Local positioning system (LPS), 227, 241 Local tangent plane (LTP), 316 Loss mechanisms, 216; see also Quality factor (Q factor) acoustic leakage, 217–218 electrical losses, 216 scattering losses, 217 viscous losses, 217 Low power consumption, 381 Low-noise amplifier (LNA), 290 Low-noise wide-dynamic-range T-network TIA, 81 circuit schematic T-network TIA interface, 81 core amplifier and T-network TIA, 84 design considerations, 81, 82 T-network TIA front end characterization, 82, 83, 84 transimpedance gain characterization, 83 Lower critical solution temperature (LCST), 332 448 LPS, see Local positioning system (LPS) LTP, see Local tangent plane (LTP) Lumped element model, 383 M M2-TFG, see Mode-matched tuning fork gyroscope (M2-TFG) MAC layers, see Medium access control layers (MAC layers) Magnetic actuators electrostatic or piezoelectric, 374–375 flexible membrane, 375 free-standing membranes, 377 magnetic PDMS membrane, 376, 377 RMS, 376 static and dynamic behaviors, 375 vibrotactile electromagnetic actuator, 375 VITAL display, 375, 376 Magnetic sensor package measurement models Magnetic tactile sensor, 367 Magneto-inductive sensors detection, 368 GMR, 369 magnetic tactile sensor, 367 magnetically driven sensor structure, 368 operational modes, 367, 368 planar coil, 367 silicone rubber, 368 2D spiral-shaped coil matrix, 369 unit cell top view, 369 Mass–spring–damper mechanical system, 277 mBVD model, see modified Butterworth Van Dyke model (mBVD model) MCU, see Microcontroller (MCU) MD, see Mobile device (MD) MEA, see Microelectrode array (MEA) Mechanically flexible interconnect (MFI), 116, 118 ANSYS FEM simulation comparing, 118 curved beam and cantilever design comparison, 118 curved beam design, 118 high-yield-point material uses, 119 mechanical testing, 120 microscope and SEM image versions, 119 oxidation prevention, 119 SEM image showing curved profile, 119 tapered interconnect structure, 118 Mechanical noise equivalent rotation (MNEΩ), 71 Mechanically flexible interconnections, 116, 117 Medium access control layers (MAC layers), 405 Meissner’s corpuscles, 364 MEM resonators, see Microelectromechanical resonators (MEM resonators) MEMS-based circuits, 29 MEMS-driven lamellar grating interferometer device design, 253–254 experimental results, 255–258 fabrication process, 254–255 lamellar grating structure, 257 movable finger deflection, 256 OPDs intensity, 258 optical testing systems schematics, 257 reflected light beams images, 257 spectrum reconstruction, 258 Index Zygo optical profilometer, 255 MEMS, see Microelectromechanical system (MEMS) MEMS gyroscope, 184 complete system, 197 Coriolis-based, 187–188 CST function use, 195 ESC, 200, 201 gaming, 198 navigation, 201 OIS, 198 signal and errors spectrum, 189 3D motion capture, 200 Mesh-coupled ladder, 295–296 Metal–insulator–metal capacitor (MIM capacitor), 21, 22, 209 capacitance density, 23 carbon contamination on, 24 with HfO2 high-κ dielectric films, 23 schematic cross-section, 23 Metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), 22 Metal oxide-based gas sensors, 395 alumina ceramic tube, 396 finger electrodes, 396 last cross-sensitivity, 395–396 nanostructured metal oxide, 396, 397 oxidizing and reducing gases, 395 temperature distribution, 397 Metal–oxide–semiconductor capacitors (MOS capacitors), 21, 22 MFI, see Mechanically flexible interconnect (MFI) Micro hot-plate fabrication, 391–392 fragile devices, 393 photolithographical process, 392 Si3N4 layer, 392 silicon membranes, 393 SiO2, 392 thermal emitter hot plate, 392 thermal hot plate, 392 Micro hot plates closed membrane, 382 design process for, 383 devices, 381 electrical characterization, 393 FEM analysis, 389, 390, 391 fine design process, 383 heater and temperature sensor layout, 388–389 hot-plate design, 386–387, 388 measurements in vacuum chamber, 394 for metal oxide-based gas sensors, 395–396, 397 modulation heater temperature, 393 radiation power measurement, 395 spectroscopic transmission gas measurement, 397 static electric investigations, 393, 394 suspension bar, 382, 388 for thermal emitters, 397, 398 thermal energy transfer, 383–386 transient characteristics determination, 394 transient investigations, 394, 395 V–I characteristics, 393 Micro-electro-discharge machining (μEDM), 339 Micro-opto-electromechanical systems (MOEMS), Microactuator fabrication, 55 optical MEMS, 61–63, 64, 65 piezoelectric cantilevers, 55, 56 Index piezoelectric MEMS devices, 55 piezoelectric MEMS switches, 56, 57, 58 piezoelectric micropumps, 58, 59, 60, 61 Microcantilever, 55 Microcontroller (MCU), 401 Microelectrode array (MEA), 361 Microelectromechanical resonator arrays clamped–clamped resonator array, 297, 298 mismatched resonator transfer functions, 298, 299, 300 resonator coupling, 297 Microelectromechanical resonator filters Chebyshev filters transfer functions, 294, 295 coupling capacitances, 296 electrostatic transduction, 293 lumped coupler T-model, 295 RLC series resonant circuit, 292, 293 triple clamped–clamped resonator filter, 293 Microelectromechanical resonators (MEM resonators), 273 array-based oscillators, 307 capacitive transduction and sensing, 275–277 clamped–clamped beam resonator, 286 comb resonator, 285 diamond-disk resonator, 288 disk resonator arrays transfer characteristics, 306 effective damping factor, 279 electrical effects, 277 electrical–mechanical analogy, 278 energy loss mechanisms, 282–283 free–free beam resonator, 286 frequency pulling, 280–281 highest-Q resonator structure, 305 hollow-disk ring resonator, 289 mass–spring–damper mechanical system, 277 modeling, 277 nonlinear effects, 280–282 oscillators, 284–285 power handling, 281–282 principle, 274–275 pull-in voltage, 281 quality factor, 275 radial–contour mode resonator, 287 resonant frequency, 285 RLC mechanical mapping analogy, 278 small-signal electrical model, 280 stemless wineglass resonator, 288 transfer function, 284 wineglass mode resonator array, 306 Microelectromechanical resonator transceivers MEMS-based receiver architecture, 292 offchip components, 291 Q-factor, 290 super-heterodyne receiver architecture, 290 Microelectromechanical system (MEMS), 4, 69, 111, 228, 249, 351, 381 accelerometer errors, 403 activation electrodes/interconnects, 331–332 bootstrapping, 112 circuit and device design, 112 Coriolis sensing fingers, 188 CST, 195 devices, 29, 332, 352 drug release, 331 fault monitors, 196 449 gyroscope system, 187–188 IMU, 403 IMU error characteristics, 403, 404 integration stress, 116 interconnect performance, 112 Law, 112 mechanical defects of manufacturing process, 184 micro hot-plate devices, 381–382 microvalves types, 332 need for integration, 112 polymer, 351 reliability, 195 sense of touch, 352, 353, 354, 355 SMA actuators, 333 specificity, 142 state of art, 382, 383 switches, 56 tactile actuator materials, 351, 352 tactile sensor materials, 351, 352 technologies, 41 temperature compensation, 197 thermal actuators, 332 Microelectronics, C-MOS transistor, mechanical couple and power, 5–6 micromechanisms realization, 4–5 microsystems application fields, 6–14 Microfluidic systems, 58 Microgyro front ends, 79; see also Transimpedance front ends Microgyro interfacing M2-TFG, 78 micromachining techniques, 78 motional current, 77 Micromachined gyroscopes, 70 Berkeley’s z-axis vibratory rate gyroscope, 72, 73 Draper Laboratory’s silicon-on-glass tuning fork gyroscope, 72, 73 HARPSS process, 74 micromachined silicon gyroscope, 73 performance, 88 polysilicon vibrating ring gyroscope, 74 using SOI technology, 73, 74 surface micromachined gyroscopes, 73 vibratory gyroscope structures, 72 Micromechanism realization all-silicon microengine, chemical etching process, with mobile parts, two-axis gyrometer, 4, Microsystems, affymetrix gene chip arrays, 14 MEMS memory millipede scanner principle, 15 2D-Cantilevers chip array command, 15 Microsystems application fields airbag systems, fuel injection jet pressure microsensor, microsystems exploring applications, 7–14 precursor domains, 6–7 Microsystems exploring applications cMUT principle, 11 diffusion time comparison, 12 elementary fuel cell under electrical tests, 13 intradermal medical injector, 12 450 Microsystems exploring applications  (Continued) ionomer membrane porous silicon, 13 NAFION, 11, 13 with nanotechnologies, PEM hydrogen fuel cell, 12 photonic crystal optical modulator, phoXonic crystal filter-modulator, 10 protein crystallizations, 11 route planners, voltage and current density, 14 Miller effect, 170 MIM capacitor, see Metal–insulator–metal capacitor (MIM capacitor) Mimicking human tactile sensing, 354 Miniature gyroscopes, 70 MIRL17–900, 382 Mixed matrix approach, 422 MNEΩ, see Mechanical noise equivalent rotation (MNEΩ) Mobile device (MD), 240 MOCVD, see Metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) Mode-matched tuning fork gyroscope (M2-TFG), 77 interface electronics, 78 and mode shapes, 77 noise floor and long-term stability, 86 Mode-matched tuning fork gyroscope, 77 CMOS ASIC, 87 drive and sense channels, 84, 85 HARPSS, 78 key sensor and IC parameters, 87 large motional impedances, 78 low-noise wide-dynamic-range T-network TIA, 81–84 M2-TFG and mode shapes, 77 M2-TFG interface electronics, 78 microgyro front ends review, 79 root-Allan variance, 86 scale factor, 85 system integration, 86, 87 TIA interface, 79, 80 modified Butterworth Van Dyke model (mBVD model), 212–213 MOEMS, see Micro-opto-electromechanical systems (MOEMS) Monolithic integration, 113 Monolithically integrated chips, 113 Morphotropic phase boundary (MPB), 43 MOS capacitors, see Metal–oxide–semiconductor capacitors (MOS capacitors) MOS-bipolar pseudo-resistors, 81 MOSFET flicker noise, 171 Motion, 198 Mouse system design, 371 MPB, see Morphotropic phase boundary (MPB) Multiphysics modeling, 17 Multiple microactuators experimental setup, 345 fabricated device components, 342 in vivo drug-delivery applications, 341 microsyringe development, 343 perforated bonding cavity, 343 preliminary wireless tests, 343, 344 reservoir squeezing, 346 selective wireless activation, 344 Index SMA actuators, 341, 342 SMA cantilever actuator, 345 theoretical volume, 345, 346 wireless activation, 343 working principle, 342 Multiscaling modeling, 17 μEDM, see Micro-electro-discharge machining (μEDM) N NAFION, 11, 13 nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), 18 Nanoelectronics, 4; see also Ultra-miniaturization Nanoparticle (NP), 376 Natural convection, 384 Navigation, 201 Navigation-grade gyroscopes, 75 NDIR systems, see Nondispersive infrared systems (NDIR systems) NEMS, see nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) Network layers, 406 Nintendo Wii Motion Plus dongle, 199 Noise folding, 176–177 Nondispersive infrared systems (NDIR systems), 397 Nonidealities considerations for, 178 direct-coupled motions, 179–180 phase issues in drive loop, 180 quadrature error, 178–179 Nonvolatile memory (NVM), 196, 197 NP, see Nanoparticle (NP) NVM, see Nonvolatile memory (NVM) O Off-chip tanks, 285 Offset error, 189 correction, 190, 191 OIS, see Optical image stabilization (OIS) One-port RF characterization, 220 OPD, see Optical path difference (OPD) Open-loop amplifiers, 169; see also Transimpedance amplifier (TIA) AC signal at input node, 170 GBW, 172 Miller effect, 170 MOSFET flicker noise, 171 noise issue, 170–171 output signal of, 170 SNR equation, 171 spectral density of shot noise, 171 thermal noise, 171–172 transistor transconductance, 172 Optical gyroscope technologies, 70 Optical image stabilization (OIS), 198 block diagram, 198 correction using lens, 198, 199 photograph with and without, 199 Optical path difference (OPD), 250 Optical sensors bending effect, 366 FBG, 365 FBG schematic view, 365 force and light pattern generation, 367 Index LED, 365 LED-based sensor, 366 POF sensor, 366 tactile sensors, 365, 367 thermal effect and strain, 365 Optimal resistive load, 137 Oscillator approaches, 427, 428 Oscillator-based loop, 192; see also PLL-based drive loop based on electromechanical oscillator, 193 dependency, 194 resonator as second-order system, 193 Oscillator-based solutions, 427 P PA, see Power amplifier (PA) Pacinian corpuscles, 352 Package-induced stress, 117 Pad capacitance, 114 Partial differential equation (PDE), 99 Particle image velocimetry (PIV), 59 Passive acoustic sensor, 424 Passive acoustoelectric devices, 417, 418 Passive devices, 21 Passive radio-frequency acoustic sensors, 417–418 PCB, see Printed circuit board (PCB) PDE, see Partial differential equation (PDE) PDMS, see Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) PECVD, see Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) Pentan-2-ol organic compound model, 200 Performance metrics, 71 BW and dynamic range, 72 resolution, 71 scale factor, 71 ZRO and bias stability, 72 Phase-locked loop (PLL), 188, 284 drive loop, 195 in gyroscope systems, 194 off-chip, 84 oscillator, 76 oscillator-based sensing system, 427, 428 Phase noise, 284 Phase shift keying (PSK), 405 Photonic crystal optical modulator, phoXonic crystal filter-modulator, 10 Physical access control layers, 405, 406 Physics-based 1D Mason model, 210 electrical vs acoustic transmission line, 211 impedance at electrical port, 210, 211 mirror reflection, 212 piezoelectric coupling coefficient, 211 in SMR, 210 terminating acoustic impedance, 211 three-port Mason model, 210 transmission characteristic calculation, 212 Piezoelectric coupling, 145 effect, 41 materials, 41, 360 resonant frequency, 231 strain constant, 360 Piezoelectric actuator, 62, 370, 371 array, 62, 63 451 Bimorph piezoelectric cantilever, 371 mouse system design, 371 Piezoelectric bandwidth modification compensated receiver piezoelectric equivalent circuit, 233 equivalent circuit, 231, 232 frequency response, 233 Laplace response, 232 maximum impedance, 233 piezoelectric resonant frequency, 231, 234 transducer test circuit, 234 Piezoelectric cantilever microfabrication using HNO3 + HF solution, 55, 56 length and width, 56 microcantilever, 55 using photolithography, 55 piezoelectric microcantilever function, 57 piezoelectric unimorph cantilevers, 56 process sequence, 55 PZT thin films on Si substrate, 57 Piezoelectric material comparison, 140 analytical modeling results, 141 piezoelectric material properties, 141 simple model, 142 Piezoelectric MEMS switches, 56, 57 DM, 62, 63 energy harvester fabrication, 143 low-voltage actuation, 57 microswitches, 58 piezoelectric microactuator, 58 PZT films, 58 SEM image, 58 Piezoelectric MEMS vibration energy harvesters ambient energy harvesting, 132–134 complete system modeling, 153–156 Piezoelectric micropumps, 58, 59 confocal micro PIV system, 62 displacement, 59 FPW, 59 liquid flow in microchannel, 60 mean flow velocity, 59, 61 microfluidic systems, 58 photographs and schematic illustration, 60 traveling waves, 61 Piezoelectric oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (POSFET), 361 Piezoelectric properties dielectric and ferroelectric properties, 44, 45 evaluation, 44 modeling piezoelectric unimorph actuators, 45, 46–47 Piezoelectric PZT thin films, 51 on metal substrates, 51 Pt-coated microfabricated Ti sheet, 52 relationship, 52 single-crystal silicone substrate, 51 stainless-steel substrates, 52, 53 tip deflection−hysteresis curves, 53 tip displacements, 51, 52 transverse piezoelectric coefficient, 53 Piezoelectric sensors, 360 anthropomorphic fingertip sensor, 361 emerging technologies, 361 piezoelectric strain constant, 360 POSFET, 361 452 Piezoelectric sensors  (Continued) PZT and PVDF, 360, 361 sensing applications, 360, 362 well-designed artificial skin, 361 Piezoelectric thin film preparation, 42 crystal structure, 43, 44 PZT thin films deposition for MEMS, 42 sputtering deposition, 42, 43 by sputtering deposition, 44 Piezoelectric transducers electronic polarization, 228 polycrystal materials, 229 resonant modes in, 228 Piezoresistive sensors, 358, 359, 360 Piezoresistors, 358 PIP capacitors, see Poly–insulator–poly capacitors (PIP capacitors) PIV, see Particle image velocimetry (PIV) Planar coil, 367 Planck’s distribution, 385 Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), 254 Plastic optical fiber sensor (POF sensor), 366 Platinum temperature sensors, 388 PLD, see Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) PLL-based drive loop, 194–195 PM, see Power management (PM) PMMA, see Poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) PNIPAM, see Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide), (PNIPAM) POF sensor, see Plastic optical fiber sensor (POF sensor) Poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide), (PNIPAM), 332, 335 Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), 357 Poly–insulator–poly capacitors (PIP capacitors), 21, 22 Polymers, 351 Polypyrrole (PPy), 363 Polysilicon, 388 Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 227, 229, 360 Poole−Frenkel effect, 31 POSFET, see Piezoelectric oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (POSFET) Power amplifier (PA), 290 Power handling maximum power flowing, 281 MEM resonator arraying techniques, 282 Power management (PM), 404 PPy, see Polypyrrole (PPy) Pre-irradiated HfO2-based devices C−V characteristics, 29–31 HfO2 high-κ dielectric films, 29 Prechemical mechanical polishing (CMP), 124 Precursor domains, 6–7 Pressure sensors, 434 Pressure surface acoustic wave (PSAW), 434 Principle of operation, 70 capacitive BAW disk gyro, 92 Coriolis acceleration, 93 MEM resonators, 274–275 normal and shear force, 358 standard chipless SAW tag, 430 vibratory gyroscope, 184–187 Printed circuit board (PCB), 308, 408 Proof mass, see Resonator Prowave models, 236 Index PSAW, see Pressure surface acoustic wave (PSAW) PSK, see Phase shift keying (PSK) Pull-in voltage, 281 Pulsed laser deposition (PLD), 42 PVDF, see Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) PZT, see Lead zirconium titanate (PZT) Q Q, see Effective quality factor (Q) Q-factor–frequency (Q–f frequency), 289 Q-loading effect, 283 QCM, see Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) Q factor, see Quality factor (Q factor) Q–f frequency, see Q-factor–frequency (Q–f frequency) Quadrature correction, 190, 191 nulling, 76, 77 Quadrature error, see Zero rate output (ZRO) Quality factor (Q factor), 214–215, 275 acoustic Q value, 215–216 for BAW resonators, 220 FOM, 216 mBVD model, 215 phase derivative method, 215 scaling at antiresonance, 222 3-dB bandwidth method, 215 and transmission, 218–219 Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM), 422 R Radial mode disk resonators, 304 disk resonator input–output feed-through, 304–305 high stiffness, 302 resonator biasing, 303 Radial–contour mode resonator, 287 Radiation detectors, 381 effects, 22 Radiation testing, 29 annealing studies, 35, 36, 37 defects in pre-irradiated HfO2-based devices, 29–31 radiation-induced changes, 31, 32–35 Radio frequency identification (RFID), 428 Radio-controlled SMA microgripper beams, 338–339 circuit temperature measurement, 340 CNT forest manipulation, 341 gripper beams split, 340 μEDM, 339 RF control method, 338 SMA gripper and LC circuit design, 339 wireless tests, 339 Radiofrequency (RF), 8, 401, 417 actuation mechanism, 332, 334 filters, 205 ICs, 273 inductance of interconnects role, 112 MEMS switches for, 56 Rayleigh waves, 420 Read-out circuits, 168 continuous-time sensing, 168–174 discrete-time sampling, 174–177 453 Index discussions, 177–178 Real-time motion capture technology, 200 Received signal strength information (RSS information), 407 Receiver array antenna array, 236 continuous component and amplitude mismatch, 240 frequency response, 238, 239 receiver channel mutual coupling index, 239 SNR values in tested room, 240 transducer equivalent circuit component values, 238 transducer impedance measurements, 237 transducer voltage, 237 Reference surface acoustic wave (RSAW), 434 res, see Resonance frequency (res) Reservoir squeezing, 346 Resistor, inductor, capacitor circuits (RLC circuits), 277 Resonance frequency (res), 141 Resonator, 192 Resonant mechanical vibration energy harvester, 134; see also Piezoelectric MEMS vibration energy harvesters critical coupling, 139–140 influence of damping, 137–139 optimal resistive load, 137 output power, 137 piezoelectric material comparison, 140–142 unidimensional model, 134–137 Resonate-scanning advantages, 258 data acquisition system, 259–262 device operation and measurement, 259 IR laser radiation, 265 IR radiation interferogram, 263 IR tunable laser source, 264 lamellar grating device frequency response, 263 peak-to-peak voltage, 262–263 resonance operation FTIR optical testing, 259 Resonator-based systems, 304 Analog Devices AD8362 converter, 430 closed-loop control, 430 comparison, 429 frequency modulation, 430 frequency shift keying transmitters, 307–309 interrogation range, 428 MEM resonator array-based oscillators, 305–307 in RADARs, 428 SAW resonators, 428, 429 SENSeOR, 429 32-bit frequency control, 429, 430 RF, see Radiofrequency (RF) rf-magnetron sputtering, 42 RF-MEMS switches, 56 RFID, see Radio frequency identification (RFID) Rigid body attitude, 314, 316 attitude estimation, 318–320 attitude representation mathematical model, 316–317 magnetic sensor package measurement models, 317–318 Rigid body kinematic motion equation, 318 RLC circuits, see Resistor, inductor, capacitor circuits (RLC circuits) RMS, see Root Mean Square (RMS) Root Mean Square (RMS), 376 Rotation-induced Coriolis acceleration, 84 RSAW, see Reference surface acoustic wave (RSAW) RSS information, see Received signal strength information (RSS information) S SA receptor, see Slow adaptation receptor (SA receptor) Sacrificial layer process, 117 SAW sensor, see Surface acoustic wave sensor (SAW sensor) SC, see Switched-capacitor (SC) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 43, 77, 267 Scratch drive technique, SCS, see Single-crystal silicon (SCS) Sea-of-leads (SoL), 116 Seed layer fabrication, 125 Self-organizing networks, 405 Self-powered systems-on-chip (SoCs), 142 Self-powered systems-on-package (SoPs), 142 Self-test control block (STCB), 196 SEM, see Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Semiconductor materials, 359 Sense channels, 76, 84, 85 Sense of touch, 352 electrical information, 352 human skin mechanoreceptors, 353 human skin receptors, 353 operations, 355 parameters, 354–355 tactile sensing, 352, 353 tactile sensor design, 354 SENSeOR, 429 Sensing, 77 Sensor separation, 243 Sentilla T mote mini, 407, 408 Shape memory alloy actuators (SMA actuators), 331, 373, 374 for Braille tactile display, 374 NiTi SMA helical spring, 374 SMA microgripper, 338 Shear waves, 217 excitation, 210 leakage problem, 217–218 quality factor, 219 SHM, see Structure health monitoring (SHM) Signal generator, 260 Signal-processing algorithm estimation accuracies, 244 phase adjustment, 242 transmitted signal, 241 Signal-to-(noise + distortion) ratio (SNDR), 84 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 79, 171, 229 Silicon-on-insulator (SOI), 59, 92, 251 substrate, 62, 382 technology, 73 using thin silicon layer, 383 Silicon interposer application, 124 Silicon materials, 359 Single fiber structure, 357 Single-crystal silicon (SCS), 91 Single-crystal silicone substrate, 51 Single-mode optical fiber (SMF), 256 Skew-symmetric matrix, 318 Slow adaptation receptor (SA receptor), 352 454 SMA actuators, see Shape memory alloy actuators (SMA actuators) SMF, see Single-mode optical fiber (SMF) SMR, see Solidly mounted resonator (SMR) SNDR, see Signal-to-(noise + distortion) ratio (SNDR) SNR, see Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) SOC, see System on chip (SOC) SoCs, see Self-powered systems-on-chip (SoCs) SOI, see Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) SoL, see Sea-of-leads (SoL) Solder confinement, 119; see also Mechanically flexible interconnect (MFI) curved polymer surface fabrication, 119 electroplating process, 120 fabrication of, 119, 120 MFI compliance, 122 at MFIs, 120 process flow for MFI fabrication, 121 after reflow process, 120 test setup for measuring MFI compliance, 121 Solidly mounted resonator (SMR), 207, 422; see also modified Butterworth Van Dyke model (mBVD model) physics-based 1D Mason model, 210, 212 robustness, 208 SoPs, see Self-powered systems-on-package (SoPs) Sound pressure level (SPL), 229 Spatial resolution, 352 Spectrometer calibration, 268–269 SPL, see Sound pressure level (SPL) Sputtering deposition, 42–43 Stationary MEMS lamellar grating FT spectrometers, 266 fabrication process and assembly process, 267, 268 FT spectroscopy Michelson interferometer, 265 high-precision scanning mechanisms, 265 OPD, 266 spectrometer calibration and testing, 267–269 STCB, see Self-test control block (STCB) Stefan–Boltzmann constant, 385 Stefan–Boltzmann law, 385 Stemless wineglass resonator, 288 Stimuli-responsive hydrogels, 331 STM, see Surface tunneling microscope (STM) Strain gauges sensors, 358 diaphragm edges, 359 polyimide-based tactile sensing array, 359 resistive sensors, 358 single cantilever structure, 359 triaxial tactile sensor, 360 Strap-down system, 402 Structure health monitoring (SHM), 404 Surface acoustic wave sensor (SAW sensor), 8, 9, 361, 419 base-band unit, 431, 432 filters, 290 FMCW radar-like electronics, 431 frequency filters, 420 lithium niobate and lithium tantalite, 421 piezoelectric materials, 420 on piezoelectric substrates, 419 principle on IDTs, 420 principles, 430 properties and characteristics, 421 Index reflected pulses, 430, 431 RF excitation burst, 430 RFID tags, 431 time-domain response, 431 for wired sensor developments, 418 for wireless sensing applications, 418 Surface micromachined gyroscopes, 73 Surface tunneling microscope (STM), 15 Switched-capacitor (SC), 174, 175 Synchronous detection approaches, 425 System on chip (SOC), 15, 274 T Tactile actuators, 369–370 EAP actuators, 371–372, 373 magnetic actuators, 374–375, 376, 377 piezoelectric actuators, 370, 371 reviewed technology performances, 377 shape memory alloy actuators, 373, 374 Tactile sensing system, guidelines for, 354 Tactile sensors, 355 capacitive sensors, 355, 356, 357, 358 conductive polymer sensors, 362, 363, 364, 365 magneto-inductive sensors, 367, 368, 369 optical sensors, 365, 366, 367 piezoelectric sensors, 360, 361–362 piezoresistive sensors, 358–359, 360 reviewed technology performances, 377 strain gauge sensors, 358–359, 360 Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC), 112 Tangent of loss angle (tan δ), 135 tan δ, see Tangent of loss angle (tan δ) Tapered interconnect structure, 118 TBB, see 1, 3, 5-tri(4′-bromophenyl) molecules benzene (TBB) TCA, see Transcapacitance amplifier (TCA) TCC, see Temperature coefficient of capacitance (TCC) TCF, see Temperature coefficient of frequency (TCF) TDoA, see Time difference of arrival (TDoA) TDR, see Time–depth recorder (TDR) TE, see Thickness extension (TE) TED, see Thermoelastic damping (TED) Temperature coefficient of capacitance (TCC), 24 Temperature coefficient of frequency (TCF), 208, 420 Temperature sensors, 434 design, 388–389 material considerations, 388 Temperature-dependent leakage current, 24 Thermal emitter hot plate, 392 emitters, 382 grown layers, 23–24 noise, 171–172 radiation, 385, 386, 390 Thermal energy transfer convection, 384–385 in micro hot plates, 383 quadripole network, 386 thermal conduction, 384 transient characteristics, 386 Thermal microactuators planner wireless resonant heaters fabrication, 334 455 Index RF actuation mechanism, 334 steady-state temperature, 334 wireless microactuators, 333 wireless-controlled hydrogel microvalves, 333 Thermoelastic damping (TED), 99 energy loss in MEM resonators, 282–283 QTED simulation, 100 thermoelastic equations, 99–100 vibration-induced temperature distribution, 100 Thickness extension (TE), 206 Thin-layer piezoelectric materials, 142–143 Three-axis inertial, see Magnetic sensor package measurement models three-axis accelerometer, 317 three-axis gyroscope, 317–318 three-axis magnetometer, 317 Three dimensional position estimation (3D position estimation), 324 dead reckoning technique, 324–326 human pedestrian locomotion, 326–329 Three-dimensional optical tactile sensor, 367 3D motion capture, 200 3D position estimation, see Three dimensional position estimation (3D position estimation) 3D walking trajectory, 326 Ab initio simulation, 17 experimental results of, 16 in inertial frame of reference, 185 on noninertial frame of reference, 187 result with correction step, 329 result without correction step, 328 on rotating turntable, 185 Three-resonator filter structure, 294, 295 Through-silicon via technology (TSV technology), 112, 121 change after with and without gold coating, 123 cladding fabrication process, 124 CMP elimination for Post-MEMS, 126 CMP process, 126 fabrication challenges in thick chip, 122 mesh process, 126 mesh seed-layer fabrication process, 127 process flow for filling via holes, 126 process flow in thick wafers, 125 reducing effect of stresses, 124 seed layer fabrication, 125 silicon interposer application, 124 stress-aware placement, 122, 124 SU-8 microscopic image cladded top view, 124, 125 time-consuming processes, 125 Thru-open-short-and-load (TOSL), 220 TIA, see Transimpedance amplifier (TIA) Time difference of arrival (TDoA), 243 Time-saving modeling techniques, 209 Time–depth recorder (TDR), 314 Tiny OS, 409 Tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS), 420 TNEΩ, see Total noise equivalent rotation (TNEΩ) TOSL, see Thru-open-short-and-load (TOSL) Total noise equivalent rotation (TNEΩ), 71 TPMS, see Tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS) TRA, see Transresistance amplifier (TRA) Transcapacitance amplifier (TCA), 173 Transient analysis, 384 Transimpedance amplifier (TIA), 97, 170, 172, 305 capacitance change, 173 feedback resistors of, 173 input node, 174 output signal of, 173 SNR at output, 174 transistor size equations, 174 Transimpedance front ends, 80, 81; see also Microgyro front ends Transistor, 22 C-MOS, transconductance, 172 Transresistance amplifier (TRA), 172 Transverse piezoelectric properties bipolar sine-wave voltage, 49, 51 extrinsic effects, 51 input sine-wave signal, 48 measurement setup, 48 piezoelectric vibration, 48 PZT films on MgO or Si substrates, 47, 48 tip deflection−hysteresis curves, 50 tip displacement, 48, 49, 50 unimorph cantilevers, 48 1,3,5-tri(4′-bromophenyl) molecules benzene (TBB), 17 2,4,6-tri(2′-thienyl)-1,5-triazine, 3, 16 TSMC, see Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) TSV technology, see through-silicon via technology (TSV technology) Tuning electrodes, 77 Two-axis gyrometer, 4, 2D resonator, 187 U UCA, see Uniform circular array (UCA) Ultra-miniaturization, Ultra-wide-band techniques (UWB techniques), 421, 432 ISM frequency band, 432 principal aspects, 432 pulse compression, 433 in sensors and communication systems, 432 transfer function, 433 ultra-wide frequency band, 432 UWB SAW tag principle, 432 Ultrasonic technology, 227 Ultrasonic transducer technology CMUT transducers, 230 EMFi transducers, 230 experimental results, 243–244 piezoelectric transducers, 228–229 PVDF transducers, 229 Ultraviolet light (UV light), 336 Unidimensional model, 134 differential equation, 135 macroscopic and microscopic value conversion, 136 piezoelectric element, 134–135 Uniform circular array (UCA), 228 Unimorph cantilevers, 48 dimension, 48 tip deflection−hysteresis curves, 50 tip displacement, 49, 50 transverse piezoelectric coefficient, 51 Universal Serial Bus port (USB port), 322 456 UV light, see Ultraviolet light (UV light) UWB techniques, see Ultra-wide-band techniques (UWB techniques) V Valuable asset monitoring (VAM), 401 VCO, see Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) Very high speed integrated circuit (VHSIC), 134 VHSIC hardware description language analog and mixed signal (VHDL-AMS), 134 Vibratory gyroscope construction of, 184 Coriolis force, 186, 187 gain-phase response, 185 operation of, 184 primary dynamics, 187 primary resonator response, 186 signal and error spectrum from, 189 2D resonator, 185, 187 X-axis resonator, 185 Y-directional vibration, 186 Vibro-tactile actuator (VITAL actuator), 375 Vibrotactile electromagnetic actuator, 375 Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO), 284 W WAN, see Wide area network (WAN) Wearable-tactile-sensor glove, 357 Wide area network (WAN), 407 Wideband transducers CMUT sensor array, 234–236 piezoelectric bandwidth modification, 231–234 Wired approach, 425 delay-line-based approaches, 425, 426–427 oscillator approaches, 427, 428 Wireless approach, 428 activation, 343 market, 205 microactuators, 331, 333 Index resonator-based systems, 428, 429, 430 SAW interrogation principles, 430, 431, 432 SAW tag devices, 430, 431, 432 UWB techniques, 432, 433 Wireless sensor network-inertial sensor node (WSN ISN), 407 acceleration changes, 414 antenna, 408, 409 BMA applications, 409 hardware design, 407, 408 IFA on four-layer FR-4 substrate, 409 ISN nodes, 414 measured accelerations, 413 object-tracking applications, 412 range-based schemes, 413 Sentilla T mote mini, 407, 408 software components, 409–410, 411, 412 VAM, 412 WSN gateway model, 408 Wireless sensor network (WSN), 401, 404 gateway model, 408 gateway’s primary function, 406–407 hardware architecture, 405 MAC layers, 405, 406 network layers, 406 nodes, 405 physical access control layers, 405, 406 RF bands and transmission speeds, 406 RF transceiver, 404–405 self-organizing networks, 405 WSN, see Wireless sensor network (WSN) WSN ISN, see Wireless sensor network-inertial sensor node (WSN ISN) Z Zero rate output (ZRO), 72, 76, 178–179, 189 Zero-biased capacitance density, 29 ZigBee network layer, 406 Zinc oxide (ZnO), 208, 422 Zygo optical profilometer, 255