Luận văn thạc sĩ the lexical features of english used in travel brochures in vietnam

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES VŨ THỊ THU HƯƠNG THE LEXICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH USED IN TRAVEL BROCHURES IN VIETNAM (Đặc điểm từ vựng Tiếng Anh sử dụng quảng cáo du lịch Việt Nam) MASTER’S THESIS PROGRAM I Major: English Linguistics Code: 8220201.01 Hanoi - 2019 z VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES VŨ THỊ THU HƯƠNG THE LEXICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH USED IN TRAVEL BROCHURES IN VIETNAM (Đặc điểm từ vựng Tiếng Anh sử dụng quảng cáo du lịch Việt Nam) MASTER’S THESIS PROGRAM I Major: English Linguistics Code: 8220201.01 Supervisor: Dr Nguyễn Thị Minh Tâm Hanoi - 2019 z DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis has been composed by myself and it has not been submitted, in whole or in part, for any other degree or professional qualification This study is my own work, except where stated otherwise by references Signature i z ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study would have been impossible without the kind assistance of many people to whom I would like to express my appreciation and sincere thanks I owe a great debt of gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Nguyễn Thị Minh Tâm, who constantly provided me with invaluable recommendations, prompt feedback and meticulous attention Her great understanding and unfailing encouragement inspire me to complete the research in a diligent manner I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to the lecturers of the Post Graduate Department for their tremendous help and for conveying comprehensive knowledge to me and my classmates during the past two years Finally, special thanks are due to my family, friends and colleagues for their boundless love and firm support ii z ABSTRACT Considering the increasing popularity of Viet Nam as an attractive travel destination in the world, numerous promotional materials have been created by incorporating words and images to entice potential foreign customers to come to Viet Nam The present study is conducted in order to reveal the lexical features of English used in travel brochures written by Vietnamese to manifest and demonstrate the persuasive promotional function of the tourism discourse It is also necessary to consider Vietnamese English in these brochures as a variety of English in the Expanding Circle The data in this study include nine travel brochures and were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively The results of this study suggest that there are four out of five analyzed lexical features of travel brochures in Viet Nam occurring frequently, namely lexical borrowing, descriptive adjectives, modal verbs and personal pronouns Nativized word formation processes were not detected in these travel brochures iii z 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.33.44.55.54.78.655.43.22.2.4.55.2237.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.66 TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT iii TABLE OF CONTENTS iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vi LIST OF TABLES vii LISTS OF FIGURES viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale .1 1.2 Aims of the study 1.3 Research questions 1.4 Scope of the study 1.5 Significance of the study 1.6 Organization of the thesis CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 English as a global language 2.2 World Englishes today 2.3 Different models of World Englishes 2.3.1 A dualistic view of the status of English .7 2.3.2 A trinalistic view of the status of English 2.3.3 A monist view on the status of English .9 2.4 Varieties of English in Southeast Asia .10 2.4.1 Phonological features 11 2.4.2 Syntactic features 12 2.4.3 Discoursal features 13 2.4.4 Lexical features 13 2.5 English for tourism 14 2.6 Travel brochures as a special kind of genre 16 2.7 Theoretical framework 17 2.7.1 Lexical borrowing .17 iv 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.33.44.55.54.78.655.43.22.2.4.55.2237.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.66 2.7.2 Nativized word formation processes 19 2.7.3 Descriptive adjectives 22 2.7.4 Modal verbs 24 2.7.5 Personal pronouns 25 2.8 Review of previous studies 26 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 30 3.1 Data corpus 30 3.2 Data collection 30 3.3 Data analytical framework .31 3.4 Data analyzing procedure 32 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 34 4.1 Lexical borrowing 34 4.1.1 Transliteration 34 4.1.2 Loan translation 36 4.1.3 Loan blend (hybrids) 38 4.2 Nativized word formation processes 38 4.3 Descriptive adjectives 38 4.3.1 Miscellaneous descriptive (MD) 39 4.3.2 Evaluative/ emotive (EE) 41 4.3.3 Adjectives which describe the size, quantity and extent (SQE), time descriptors (T), color descriptors (C) and location descriptors (L) .44 4.3.4 Superlatives 45 4.4 Modal verbs 46 4.5 Personal pronouns .47 4.6 Others 49 4.7 Discussion 50 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION .52 5.1 Recapitulation 52 5.2 Limitations of the study 53 5.3 Recommendations for further studies .53 v 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.33.44.55.54.78.655.43.22.2.4.55.2237.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.66 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations C Color EE Evaluative/ emotive EFL English as a foreign language ESL English as a second language L Location MD Miscellaneous descriptive RP Received Pronunciation SQE Size/ quantity/ extent T Time vi 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.33.44.55.54.78.655.43.22.2.4.55.2237.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.66 LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 The Corpus of nine travel brochures 30 Table 3.2 Analytical framework 31 Table 4.1 Examples of transliteration in Vietnamese travel brochures 35 Table 4.2 Examples of loan translation in travel brochures .38 Table 4.3 Descriptive adjectives used in the travel brochures 39 Table 4.4 Twenty most frequent MD group descriptors 41 Table 4.5 Twenty most frequent EE group descriptors 43 Table 4.6 Ego- targeting adjectives/ no of instances per 100 words 44 Table 4.7 The number of modal verbs “will” and “can” in each brochure 46 vii 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.33.44.55.54.78.655.43.22.2.4.55.2237.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.66 LISTS OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 The Life Cycle of Non- Native Englishes Figure 2.2 Kachru‟s Concentric Cirles Figure 2.3 The English Umbrella .9 Figure 4.1 Descriptive adjectives used in the travel brochures .40 Figure 4.2 Personal pronouns “you”, “we” and their corresponding .48 viii 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.33.44.55.54.78.655.43.22.2.4.55.2237.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.66 The use of “you” and “we” makes the language sound friendly and warm in tone, creates the sense of involvement and persuades the readers to visit the tourist attractions The second person pronoun “you” and their corresponding make the readers feel that he/she is the particular person the writers care about and are eager to help Moreover, the use of “you” help to express the reader‟s needs, desires and hope more effectively Consequently, the readers hugely impressed by the advertisers‟ concern and they will feel that they are special and unique Personal pronoun “you” and their corresponding are extensively used in the travel brochures (496 times), below are some examples: (33) Each of our products is built with extensive study about where you go, what you see, how you and who you meet (B8) (34) ITS‟ highly trained and professional employees are dedicated to providing you a wide range of quality services tailored to meet your needs (B1) (35) Feel the wind in your hair and enjoy the freedom of the open road! (B4) The use of first person pronoun “we” and their corresponding conveys the impression that the advertisers are obedient and provide the readers with good service The readers‟ job is to just enjoy the comfort can leisure, and they can leave the work to the advertisers Examples 42- 44 illustrates this: (36) We can be your most trusted local partner in Vietnam for all travel related arrangements in Vietnam (B3) (37) Our tours are designed around what the clients want and need to create a once in-a-lifetime experience (B9) (38) Contact us for the full descriptive, detailed itineraries, as well as information on other sites and activities (B1) By using personal pronouns, the writers try to create the impression that the products and services they offer are out of the consideration of the reader‟s particular needs and benefits, and hence convince the reader to visit the tourist 48 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.33.44.55.54.78.655.43.22.2.4.55.2237.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.66 attractions It is clear that the communicative purpose of using first and second person pronouns is persuasive 4.6 Others Apart from the five abovementioned lexical features of travel brochures in Viet Nam, there are still less prominent lexical characteristics in Vietnamese travel brochures One of them is new coined expressions New coined expressions occur when the writers thought in their mother tongue, and then translated it into English Consequently, the writing does not sound as natural and idiomatic as the type of English that people in the inner circle would use in such a context The new coined expressions are not included in the Standard English dictionaries but can still understood by Vietnamese people or even foreign people with or without explanation In her study, Trinh (2002) offers many examples of new coined expressions by Vietnamese For example, some Vietnamese use the expression “serving time” This expression is translated from the Vietnamese phrase “giờ phục vụ”, in which “giờ” means “time” and “phục vụ” means “serving” However, in native English, “serving time” denotes the time served in prison The correct expression to use should be “business hours” or “operating hours” Numerous new coined expressions like this can be found in travel brochures in Viet Nam By way of illustration, Vietnamese brochure uses the phrase “hidden pleasures” which is translated from the Vietnamese phrase “thú vui tiềm ẩn” (B1) (“hidden” means “tiềm ẩn” and “pleasures” means “thú vui”) Actually, native English does not contain such collocation Travel brochures in Viet Nam contain a lot of new coined expressions, some examples are shown below Expressions “equable temperatures” and “cooperative weather” is from B5 (p2) and “carbon producing transport” is from B3 (p4) 49 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.33.44.55.54.78.655.43.22.2.4.55.2237.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.66 4.7 Discussion This study examines the lexical features of travel brochures, a special kind of genre The context of these brochures is in Viet Nam, a non- native English speaking country belonging to the Expanding Circle Consequently, the lexical features in this study reflect both the characteristics of the tourism genre and those of Vietnamese English in the Expanding Circle Regarding the research question, the study analyzed five prominent lexical elements of travel brochures in Viet Nam: lexical borrowing, nativized word formation processes, descriptive adjectives, modal verbs and personal pronouns Firstly, concerning lexical borrowing, abundant examples were found in the two types: transliteration and loan translation; however, loan blend was not detected in the data Secondly, instances of nativized word formation processes were not encountered either Thirdly, miscellaneous descriptive adjectives and evaluative/ emotive adjectives makes up the biggest percentages of all descriptive adjectives, followed by local descriptors, size, quality and extent descriptors, time descriptors and color descriptors Superlatives are also regularly used to highlight the distinguishing features of the locations Fourthly, the modal verbs “will” and “can” are frequently utilized to show promise and opportunity Last but not least, the personal pronouns “you”, “we” and their corresponding makes the language sound friendly and warm in tone, thus persuading the tourists to visit the destinations There are similarities between the lexical borrowing features in this study and those described by Haugen (1970), Ying (2012) and Kachru, Yamuna, and Cecil (2006) Transliteration and loan translation were widely used in Vietnamese English and other varieties of Englishes in Southeast Asia However, the third level of lexical borrowing, namely loan blend or hybrids was not detected in this study Furthermore, the results of this study differ from some published studies (Nor, Zamri & Awab, 2015; Ramly, Othman, & McLellan, 2002) in that no evidence of 50 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.33.44.55.54.78.655.43.22.2.4.55.2237.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.66 nativized word formation processes were spotted A possible explanation for this might be that nativization of English in Viet Nam is only experiencing the first two levels of lexical borrowing, namely transliteration and loan translation Another interesting finding is new coined expressions such as “hidden pleasures” or “cooperative weather” and this can be considered a distinctive feature of Vietnamese English As for descriptive adjectives, personal pronouns and modal verbs, these results are consistent with those of Henry and Roseberry (1996), Leech (1966), Boonchayaanant (2003), Iborra and Garrido (2001), Francesconi (2004) and Pakkinen (2005) The results of the study confirmed that the purpose of descriptive adjectives to make the brochure or the attraction appear as alluring and appealing as possible The modal verbs “will” and “can” are frequently utilized to show promise and opportunity The personal pronouns “you”, “we” and their corresponding makes the language sound friendly and warm in tone, thus persuading the tourists to visit the destinations Nonetheless, the findings of personal pronouns not support the previous research by Dhitthita (2009), who suggests that the top five personal pronouns were third personal pronouns, including “it”, “its”, “their”, “his”, and “they” It seems possible that these results are due to the differences in the data corpus Dhitthita (2009) also deals with promotional texts, yet in the form of tourist leaflets 51 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.33.44.55.54.78.655.43.22.2.4.55.2237.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.66 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 5.1 Recapitulation This analysis of lexical features in Vietnamese travel brochures shed light on some prominent aspects of lexis in tourism discourse and the English lexis in a country belonging to the Expanding Circle The data corpus includes nine travel brochures written by Vietnamese and the lexical aspects are approached qualitatively and quantitatively As a kind of tourism text, travel brochures in Viet Nam feature some lexical aspects which are consistent with those of other studies such as the use of descriptive adjectives, modal verbs “will” and “can” and personal pronouns “you”, “we” to demonstrate the persuasive promotional function of the tourism discourse Lexis in a non- native English speaking country like Viet Nam includes a lot of transliterated words and loan translation expressions However, loan blend and nativized word formation processes are not found It can therefore be assumed that Vietnamese English is undergoing the third phase in the life-cycle of non-native varieties proposed by Moag (1982) In the process of indigenization, lexical borrowings are permitted when English fails to find a suitable equivalent for the expressions of local nuances Still, in Viet Nam, native English is considered the “Standard” English to follow, and any deviation from the native norms is rejected as incorrect English Vietnamese use English primarily for communication with native speaking aliens, and English has not become a medium of communication among the local Vietnamese Attempts are being made for the expansion in use and function of English English is being used as medium of instruction in few schools and some newspapers is bilingual By comparison, Singaporean English is at institutionalization phase and the final stage “restriction of use and function of English” does appear imminent in Malaysia and the Philippines English is flourishing in Viet Nam, yet Vietnamese English still needs to go through some other stages to be considered a new variety of English 52 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.33.44.55.54.78.655.43.22.2.4.55.2237.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.66 5.2 Limitations of the study A number of important limitations need to be considered First, within the limited scope of the study, other interesting features of travel brochures were not analyzed in this study such as syntactic features or even other lexical features like lexical density, lexical complexity Another salient shortcoming of this research is the relatively small sampling, consisting of nine travel brochures Caution must be applied, as the findings might not be transferable to travel brochures of other sources 5.3 Recommendations for further studies I hope that this study will stimulate some interest among other researchers to explore other linguistic features of tourism texts and other types of promotional texts Further study could also compare and contrast the prominent lexical features of English among Inner Circle, Outer Circle and Expanding Circle varieties Moreover, it would be interesting to assess the attitude of Vietnamese and nonVietnamese towards lexical features of English in non- native English speaking countries In addition, nativized word formation processes were not detected in travel brochures used as data of this study, a future investigation into nativized word formation processes in Vietnamese English in other types of discourse is strongly recommended 53 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.33.44.55.54.78.655.43.22.2.4.55.2237.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.66 REFERENCES Baskaran, L (2005) A Malaysian English Primer, Aspects of Malaysian English Features Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press Bauer, L (1983) English Word Formation Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Bhat, S D N (1994) The adjectival category: criteria for differentiation and identification United Kingdom: John Benjamins Publishing Company Bhatia, V.K (1993) Genre Analysis: Theory, Practice and Application Burnt Mill, Harlo, Essex, England: Longman Biber, D., Johannson, S., Leech, G., 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Yoneoka, J (2001) The English umbrella: Model of a multicultural language system Kumamoto Gakuen University Retrieved http://www.atida.org/forums/showthread.php?p=20638 58 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z from 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La Vong Chả cá Lã Vọng Bun Bún Bia hoi Bia Tra da Trà đá 59 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 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Tay Ninh Tây Ninh Mai Chau Mai Châu 60 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 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Núi Nhà Thờ Núi Tran Quoc Trấn Quốc An Quoc An Quốc Nha Co Nhà Cổ Buildings 61 37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.99 z 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