doubt is their product This page intentionally left blank DOUBT how industry’s assault on science IS THEIR threatens your health PRODUCT DAV I D M I C H A E L S 2008 Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further Oxford University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Copyright Ó 2008 by Oxford University Press, Inc Published by Oxford University Press, Inc 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 www.oup.com Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Michaels, David, 1954– Doubt is their product : how industry’s assault on science threatens your health / by David Michaels p ; cm Includes bibliographical references ISBN 978-0-19-530067-3 Industrial toxicology—United States Environmental health—United States Science and industry—United States Lobbying—United States Health risk assessment—United States [DNLM: Environmental Pollution—adverse effects—United States Carcinogens—toxicity—United States Industry—standards—United States Liability, Legal—United States Lobbying—United States Public Policy—United States WA 670 M621d 2007] I Title RA1229.M53 2007 615.9'02—dc22 2007010959 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper For Gail, Joel, and Lila This page intentionally left blank Contents Introduction: ‘‘Sound Science’’ or ‘‘Sounds Like Science’’? ix The Manufacture of Doubt Workplace Cancer before OSHA: Waiting for the Body Count 12 29 America Demands Protection Why Our Children Are Smarter Than We Are 38 45 The Enronization of Science Tricks of the Trade: How Mercenary Scientists Mislead You Defending Secondhand Smoke 79 Still Waiting for the Body Count Chrome-Plated Mischief 97 91 60 viii contents 10 110 Popcorn Lung: OSHA Gives Up 11 124 Defending the Taxicab Standard 12 142 The Country Has a Drug Problem 13 Daubert: The Most Influential Supreme Court Ruling You’ve Never Heard Of 161 14 The Institutionalization of Uncertainty 176 15 The Bush Administration’s Political Science 192 16 Making Peace with the Past 212 17 Four Ways to Make the Courts Count 232 18 Sarbanes-Oxley for Science: A Dozen Ways to Improve Our Regulatory System 241 Acknowledgments 267 Abbreviations and Acronyms References Index 275 357 271 Introduction: ‘‘Sound Science’’ or ‘‘Sounds Like Science’’? Since 1986 every bottle of aspirin sold in the United States has included a label advising parents that consumption by children with viral illnesses greatly increases their risk of developing Reye’s syndrome, a serious illness that often involves sudden damage to the brain or liver Before that mandatory warning was required by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the toll from this disease was substantial: In one year—1980—555 cases were reported, and many others quite likely occurred but went unreported because the syndrome is easily misdiagnosed One in three diagnosed children died.1 Today, less than a handful of Reye’s syndrome cases are reported each year—a public health triumph, surely, but a bittersweet one because an untold number of children died or were disabled while the aspirin manufacturers delayed the FDA’s regulation by arguing that the science establishing the aspirin link was incomplete, uncertain, and unclear The industry raised seventeen specific ‘‘flaws’’ in the studies and insisted that more reliable ones were needed.2 The medical community knew of the danger, thanks to an alert issued by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), but parents were kept in the dark Despite a federal advisory committee’s concurrence with the CDC’s conclusions about the link with aspirin, the industry even issued a public service announcement claiming ‘‘We know that no medication has been proven to cause Reyes’’ (emphasis in the original).3 This campaign and the dilatory procedures of the White House’s Office of Management and Budget delayed a public education program for two years and mandatory ix 358 index amphotericin B, 149 amusement parks, 48 Anderson, Robert, 227 angiosarcoma, 35, 36, 66 aniline, 26 animal studies, 67–68, 111–12, 166, 169–71 Annapolis Center for Science-Based Policy, 56, 57 anthrax vaccine, 151 antidepressants, 153 antioxidants, 26 APCO Associates, 58 APCO Worldwide, 56 API See American Petroleum Institute aplastic anemia, 70 appetite suppressants, 155–56 Applied Epidemiology, 101, 105, 107 Arizona, 233 armed forces, 218–19 Army Science Board, 194 aromatic amines, 19–20, 24, 26, 28, 38, 92–96 arrhythmia, 153, 171 arsenic, 202 arthritis, 143, 146 Arthur Andersen, 243 Asarco (metals smelter), 192 asbestos, 12–19, 29, 30, 38, 45, 50, 52, 61, 66, 133, 140, 177, 181, 183, 229, 232, 238, 242, 248 Asbestos Information Association, 18 asbestosis, 13–14, 16, 17, 232 Asbestos Textile Institute, 15, 17 Asians, 151 aspirin, ix–x, 143, 146, 147, 149, 158 Association of British Chemical Manufacturers, 25, 92 Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers, 182 asthma, 51, 85, 111 AstraZeneca, 159–60 Atlantic Legal Foundation, 164 atomic bomb, 125 Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 125–26, 213, 214, 216–21, 227, 229 atomic tests, 218–19 atrazine, 49, 180, 183 auto industry, 51–52, 263 auto mechanics, 181 Avandia, 233 Avorn, Jerry, 209 back disorders, 123 Baier, Edward J., 129 Bailar, John, 188 Baker, James, 197 Banner, William, 193 barium, 182 BASF (co.), 112 Baycol, 153 Becker, Edward, 104 Bendectin, 161–63, 170 benzene, 31, 46, 51, 62–63, 70–71, 74–77, 261 ‘‘benzene decision,’’ 27, 31, 32, 99 benzidine, 21, 25–28, 92, 94–96 Berger, Margaret, 168 beryllium, x, xii, 4, 46, 50, 51, 55, 124–41, 221–24, 227–29, 236, 237, 243, 260 Beryllium Industry Scientific Advisory Committee (BISAC), 133, 134–35 beta-Naphthylamine (BNA), 19–28, 91–94 Bextra, 153 B.F Goodrich, 35, 36, 66 Bhopal (India), 210 bias, 64–65, 68, 73, 156, 167, 185 Bingaman, Jeff, 227 Bingham, Eula, 27, 31, 32, 98 Birmingham (England), 26 birth defects, 161 BISAC See Beryllium Industry Scientific Advisory Committee Blackburn, Elizabeth, 196 Blackmun, Justice Harry, 162, 167 blacks, 151, 223 bladder cancer, 19–28, 62, 63, 65, 91–96 blood pressure, 171, 182 BNA See beta-Naphthylamine Bohr, Niels, 212 brain cancer, 175 Brandeis, Louis, 257 breast cancer, 51, 206 British Medical Journal, index British Petroleum, 74 Brodeur, Paul, 12, 18 bronchiolitis obliterans, 110–19, 234 bronchitis, 111 Brown, Vandiver, 13–14, 16 Brown and Williamson Tobacco Corporation, 3, 10, 89, 90 Browner, Carol, 185 Brush Wellman (co.), 129–37, 139–41 Brush with Death (Warren), 42 Bureau of Labor Statistics, 211 Bureau of Mines, 40, 41 Burke, Sheila, 154 Burlington (Iowa), 227 Burson-Marsteller, 56 Bush, George H.W., 136, 216 Bush, George W., xi, 116, 139, 195, 196, 201 Bush administration (second), 151, 186, 193–98, 202, 203, 205, 207–11, 233, 235, 239, 240, 255, 257, 263 Bushwhacked (Ivins and Dubose), 122 Butler, William, 88, 100 calcium channel blockers, 144 Calco Chemicals, 19, 21 Califano, Joseph, 130 California, 48, 52, 131, 263–64 Cameron, Charles S., 6, cancer animal studies, 25, 67–68, 169 arsenic as causative, 202 benzene as causative, 70 beryllium as causative, 127–31, 133–35 bladder, 19–28, 62, 63, 65, 91–96 brain, 175 breast, 51, 206 chemicals known to cause, 263 chromium as causative, 52, 54, 99 colon, 147 monographs on causes of, 257 in nuclear weapons workers, xii, 217–19 occupational, 35–37 orthotoluidine as causative, 92–94 plutonium as causative, 217–18 prostate, 49 359 registries, 63 and smoking, 85 stomach, 52 and vinyl chloride, 35, 36, 66 See also lung cancer carbon black, 54–55 carbon dioxide, 199, 201, 202 carbon monoxide, 31, 83 Carnahan, Jean, 192 Carpenter, Daniel, 152 Carson, Rachel, 29 Carter, Jimmy, 31 Case, Robert A.M., 25–26, 27, 62 Castleman, Barry, 12 Cates, Wayne, 228 cattle grazing, 204 CDC See Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Cecil, Joe S., 166, 171 Celebrex, 146, 147, 149, 150 Center for Consumer Freedom, 56 Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, 152, 154, 160 Center for Indoor Air Research (CIAR), 50, 85–86, 87 Center for Media and Democracy, 56 Center for Progressive Reform, 183 Center for Regulatory Effectiveness (CRE), 179, 180 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), ix, 43, 192, 205, 207 certainty, x–xi, 60–61, 95, 144, 165, 174, 265 Chambers, Arthur, 21 Chambers Works (Deepwater, N.J.), 21–24, 40, 94 charter schools, 211 chemical industry, 20, 21, 32–33, 120, 203, 208, 210–11, 234, 255, 259 See also toxic chemicals; specific companies Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology, 203 Chemical Manufacturers Association, 88 chemical pneumonitis, 124 Chemical Products Corporation, 182 ChemRisk, 46, 51, 52, 74, 75, 100, 101, 103, 117, 181 360 index children effects of mercury in, 41 IQ of, 38–39, 43, 44, 261 and junk food advertising, 208 and lead poisoning, 38–39, 43–44, 192–93, 261 suicidal behavior in, 158, 233 China, 72, 76–78, 96 Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine, 76, 77 chlorofluorocarbons, 248 cholesterol, 153, 256 Chrome Coalition, 100, 101, 103, 105–7 chromium, xii, 46, 51, 52, 54, 97–110, 243, 248, 253 chronic beryllium disease, x, 125, 127, 137–41, 222–23, 229, 260 Chrysler Corp., 182 CIAR See Center for Indoor Air Research Ciba Chemicals, 27 Cigarette Papers, The, 10, 90 cigarettes, 3, 6, 7, 90, 177, 232, 242 Circulation, 89 Clarinex, 160 Claritin, 160 Clark, Tom, 37 Clayton Aniline Company Ltd., 27 Clean Air Act, 30–31, 43, 58–59, 199, 203, 262 Clean Air Act Amendments, 44 Clean Water Act, 30, 262 climate, xi, 181, 197, 198, 200, 201, 211 clinical trials, 143–47, 149–53, 157–60, 233 Clinton, Bill, 99, 121, 221 Clinton administration, 206–7, 228 coal, 50–51, 57, 201, 242 coal tar, 20 coal tar pitch volatiles, 114 cohort studies, 62–65 Cold War, 214, 215 Cole, Jerome, 44 colon cancer, 147 colon polyps, 147, 157 Colorado Plateau, 220 Colucci, Anthony, 51, 85 Columbus, Christopher, Commission of European Communities, 69 Committees for Occupational Safety and Health, 32 Competitive Enterprise Institute, 181 ConAgra, 118, 119 condoms, 205 conflict of interest, 245–47, 255–57 confounding, 65–66, 73 Consolidation Coal Company, 33 Consumer Product Safety Commission, 39, 182, 239 Contac, 156 contraception, 193, 205, 233 Cooling, William, 17 Cooney, Philip, 201 Cordarone, 170–71 Corn, Morton, 98 corporations, xi, 197–98, 210, 232–35, 239, 242–47, 253–54, 258–60 See also specific corporations and industries cost-benefit analyses, 186 cotton dust, 31 Council for Tobacco Research, Council on Government Relations, 188 Council on Water Quality, 56 courts, 234–35 alternative compensation programs, 237–38 preemption by preamble, 238–40 secrecy in, 235–36 suit of employers in, 236–37 Covington and Burling, 87 COX-1 inhibitors, 146 COX-2 category, 146, 149, 150, 153, 256 CRE See Center for Regulatory Effectiveness Creech, John, 35, 36 CropLife America, 49 Cuyahoga River, 30, 31, 242 Dalkon Shield, 233 Data Access Act See Shelby Amendment Data Quality Act, 178–83, 189–91, 199, 253 Daubert test, 162–75 Daubert II, 163, 169–70 Daubert v Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 162 index DBCP, 31–32 DCB See dichlorobenzidene DDT, 29, 30 Deceit and Denial (Markowitz and Rosner), 35, 38 Delaney, James, Delaney Clause, 25 DeLauro, Rosa L., 118 Democratic Party, 31 Denmark, 158 Department of Defense, 136, 229 Department of Energy (DOE), 55, 122, 131, 136–39, 196, 214, 216, 217, 221–30, 237, 257, 259, 261 Department of Health and Human Services, 122 Department of Justice, 221, 229, 230 Department of Labor, 224, 225, 230 depression, 153, 157 Deutsch, George, 200 DeWine, Mike, 226 diabetes, 155, 208, 233 diacetyl, xii, 111–19, 234, 247, 253 dichlorobenzidene (DCB), 94–95 diet, 208 Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) clinical trial, 182 Diflucan, 160 dilution, 65 dioxin, 248 disclosure, 245–47, 249–51, 257–58 disease, 60, 63, 165, 222, 264 Distilled Spirits Council, 51 DOE See Department of Energy Dole, Elizabeth, 120 Doll, Richard, dose-response curve, 73 double blind trials, 145 Dow Chemical, 32, 34, 35 downwinders, 219, 220–21 Dreessen, Waldemar, 14, 15 Drew, Robert, 76 drugs, 142–60 clinical trials, 143–47, 149–53, 157–60, 233 FDA evaluation of, 242 labels, 160, 178, 239–40 361 Medicare Prescription Drug bill, 207–8 needle exchange programs, 195, 207 side effects, 146, 153, 154 See also specific drugs Drum Mountain, 216 Dubose, Lou, 122 ´ ´ du Pont, Irenee, 22–23 DuPont Company See E.I du Pont de Nemours and Company Durenberger, Dave, 43 dyes, 20–22, 26, 62, 91, 95, 96 Eastman Kodak, 219 Eckardt, Robert, 70 Egypt, 96 E.I du Pont de Nemours and Company, 19–24, 26–28, 40, 45, 49, 92–95 Einstein, Albert, 212 Eisenbud, Merril, 125 emergency, 188 Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, 210 Emerson, Jo Ann, 179 emission standards, 263, 264 endangered species, 204 Endangered Species Act, 204 Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act, 141, 230–31, 237 Enron (co.), 47, 243, 252 ENVIRON, Inc., 87 ENVIRON International Corporation, 105, 107–8 environment, 29–31, 46, 47, 55–56, 60, 68, 175, 183, 190, 196–97, 200, 216, 241, 247, 254–55, 262 ‘‘Environment, The: A Cleaner, Safer, Healthier America,’’ 197–98 Environmental Defense, 248 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) atrazine study, 180 and benzene, 70, 75, 261 chromium study, 100–104, 106 Clean Air Advisory Scientific Committee, 196 clean air standards/regulations, 31, 56, 177 362 index Environmental Protection Agency (continued) coal particles and asthma study, 51 and confidentiality claims, 250–51 creation of, 30 and Food Quality Protection Act, 260 Gold Book, 181–82 and high-production volume chemicals, 120, 248 leaded gasoline proposals, 43–44 mandate, 241 microwave popcorn emissions study, 118 morale at, 209 and perfluorooctanoic acid, 49 possible conflict of interest in studies, 246 public health regulations, 242 recommendations on mercury, 41–42 regulation of chemicals, 248–49 regulation of corporations, 232 regulations on arsenic in water, 202 report on global warming, 199 risk assessments, 69, 203 Science Advisory Board, 184, 193 science at, 184–85, 201 and secondhand smoke, 52, 80 and tobacco industry, 3, 90, 232 Toxics Release Inventory, 210–11, 257 uncoordinated protection systems, 262 weakening or elimination of regulations, 202–3, 254, 259 Environmental Risk Analysis, 88 EPA See Environmental Protection Agency ephedra, 50 Epidemiology, 57 epidemiology, 61–67, 69, 72, 87, 108, 128, 133, 165, 166, 169–71, 217, 261 ergonomics, 120–23, 194–95 Erin Brockovich (movie), 52 ethyl, 40, 41 Europe, 80–81, 88, 141, 249 European Union, 208, 249 evidence-free zone, 154, 155 expert testimony, 162–64, 171, 173 Expert Witness Scam, The (Robertson), 51 Explorer SUV, 233 Exponent, Inc., 46–49, 51, 75, 82, 101, 103, 109, 137–38, 181, 182, 192 exposure history, 63–64 exposure misclassification, 65 ExxonMobil, 56, 75, 198, 199, 201 factories, 211 failure analysis, 47 Failure Analysis Associates, 47, 82, 87 Fallon, Eldon E., 240 family planning, 205 fast food, 209 FDA See Food and Drug Administration Federal Advisory Committee Act, 195 Federal Aviation Agency, 90 Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act, 33 Federal Employees’ Compensation Act, 224–25 Federal Focus, 88 Federal Rule of Evidence 702, 162 Federal Trade Commission, 10, 90 Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, 188 Feldman, Stanley, 165 FEMA See Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association Fen-Phen, 233 Fernald (Ohio), 216 Firestone tires, 233–34 fish, 56 Fish and Wildlife Service, 210 FishScam, 56 Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA), 115–16, 117 flavorings, 111–19, 234, 247 fluconazole, 149 Flue-cured Tobacco Cooperative Stabilization Corp et al v U.S EPA, 89 fluorescent lamp industry, 124 fluorocarbons, 30 fluoxetine, 160 Fontham, Elizabeth, 87–88, 100 food additives, 25, 111–19 Food and Agriculture Organization (UN), 208 index Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advisory on mercury, 41 banning of ephedra, 50 and Bendectin, 161 budget, 152, 210 and conflict of interest, 256 data on Vioxx, 147, 148, 154, 255 and diacetyl, 118, 119 and drug labels, 160, 178, 239–40 evaluation of safety of drugs, 242 licenses for new medications, 142 mandatory warning on aspirin, ix morale at, 209–10, 242 and Parlodel, 171 and pharmaceutical industry, 151–57, 159–60, 189 refusal to license postcoital contraceptive, 205 regulation of corporations, 232 Reproductive Health Drugs Advisory Committee, 193 scientific analyses, 150–51, 246 standards violations, 209 and tobacco industry, 3, 90, 232 food contamination, food irradiation, 61 food labeling, 264 Food Quality Protection Act, 260 Ford, Gerald, 31 Ford Motor Co., 181, 233–34 formaldehyde, 62, 203 fossil fuel industry, xi Foster, Richard, 207–8 Foulke, Edwin, 116 Foundation for Clean Air Progress, 56 Freedom of Information Act, 176, 177, 182 free markets, 197–98 Freon, 45 Frist, William, 12 Frye test, 161–62, 164, 169 fuchsine, 21 funding effect, 143–44, 164 Gaffney, Terry, 49–50 Gale, Edwin, 155 Galileo’s Revenge (Huber), 57, 167 Gardner, Leroy, 14, 16 363 gasoline, 23–24, 40–44, 70, 77 gastrointestinal complications, 146 Gauley Bridge tunnel, 14 Gehrmann, George, 26 General Accounting Office, 195 general duty clause, 113 General Electric Co v Joiner, 163, 166 general epidemiological principles (GEP), 88 General Motors, 23, 40, 181 GEP See general epidemiological principles Germany, 20, 21, 22, 28 Ginevan, Michael, 82, 87 Givelber, Dan, 236 glaciers, 202 Glantz, Stanton, 58, 90 GlaxoSmithKline, 157, 233 Glister-Mary Lee (co.), 110–12, 116 global warming, xi, 197, 198–201, 209 Gold Book, 181–82, 183 Goodrich See B.F Goodrich Goodyear Tire and Rubber, 65, 70–72, 76, 92–94, 96 Gori, Gio, 54 Government Accountability Office, 203 Graham, John, 178, 179, 183, 186, 188 Graham, Mary, 257 Gray, C Boyden, 208 Great Britain, 13, 20, 25–26, 28 greenhouse emissions, 199–200, 202, 211 Greenland, 202 Grocery Manufacturers of America, 209 groundwater, 52 Guston, David, 186–87 Hager, W David, 193 Hammond, E Cuyler, 6, Hanford (Wash.), 213, 215, 218 Hanig, Josh, 31–32 Hansen, James, 200–201 Harkin, Tom, 227 Harnett, Gordon, 133 Haskell, Harry, 22 Haskell Laboratory for Toxicology and Industrial Medicine, 22, 23, 93 Hayes, Tyrone, 180, 183 hazard reduction plan, 259 health See public health 364 index Health Effects Institute, 252 Health Research Group, 91 healthy worker effect, 64–65 Healy, David, 158 heart attack, 144, 146–48, 153, 155, 157, 160, 233, 240, 255–56 heartburn, 153, 159–60 heart disease, 4, 83, 89, 146–47, 233 Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, 182 Hemeon, W.C.L., 15–16 hemorrhagic stroke, 156 herbicides, 180 high-production volume chemicals, 120, 248 Hill, Austin Bradford, Hill, John, 5–6, 45, 79 Hill and Knowlton, 5, 9, 18, 36–37, 39, 42, 45–46, 79, 132–33 Hirayama, Takeshi, 86–87 Hiroshima ( Japan), 217, 218, 219 Hispanics, 151 HIV/AIDS, 151, 152, 206, 207 Hofmeister, John, 202 Horn, Daniel, 6, Horwitz, Ralph, 156 Houck, Oliver, 190 Houk, Vernon, 44 Howard, William E III, 194 Huber, Peter, 57, 164, 167 Hueper, Wilhelm, 16, 17, 22–26, 92, 98 Hyde, Henry, 230 hydrogen bomb, 215 hypertension, 171 IARC See International Agency for Research on Cancer ibuprofen, 143 India, 96 Indoor and Built Environment, 53 Industrial Health Foundation, 105, 107 Industrial Hygiene Foundation, 15 Infante, Peter, 71 information, 178, 183–84, 235 information bias, 65 Information Quality Act, 178 See also Data Quality Act insect-borne diseases, 202 Insider, The (movie), Institute of Medicine, 153, 154 Integrated Risk Assessment System, 182 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UN), 198–99 International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 53, 54–55, 93, 131, 134–35, 140, 203, 257 International Brotherhood of Teamsters, 115 International Carbon Black Association, 55 International Chemical Workers Union, 19 International Labour Organization, 21, 22, 95 International Society for Environmental Epidemiology, 252 International Society for Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 53 International Society of Canine Cosmetologists, 116 Iowa, 219, 227 IQ (intelligence quotient), 38, 43, 44, 261 Iraq war, 211 Ivins, Molly, 122 JAMA See Journal of the American Medical Association James, Les, 236–37 Japan, 218, 219 Jasanoff, Sheila, 173, 187, 250 JOEM See Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine Johns Hopkins University, 100, 103, 104, 106 Johns-Manville Corporation, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 133, 232 Johnson, Lyndon, 33 Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (JOEM), 55, 104–5, 107–8, 135 Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), 6, 39, 150, 159, 171, 245 Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 134 journals, 53–55, 57, 76, 144, 158, 159, 184, 185, 189, 245, 246, 250 judges, 161–73 junk food, 208–9 index junk science, xi–xii, 57–58, 122, 164, 179, 197, 202 juries, 161, 166–68, 172 Kaiser Permanente, 154 Kass, Leon, 196 Kassirer, Jerome, 166, 171 Kennedy, Donald, 189, 193, 195 Kennedy, John F., 29 Kennedy, Ted, 228 Kessler, David, 156 Keusch, Gerald, 196 Key, Marcus, 36 Koop, C Everett, 10, 89 Kornegay, Horace, 79 Kovacs, William, 180 Krimsky, Sheldon, 247 Kumbo Tire Co v Carmichael, 164, 169 Kweder, Sandra, 160 Kyoto Accords, 199 labor unions, 32 Lanphear, Bruce, 192 Lanza, Anthony, 13–14 Lasker, Mary, lawsuits, 233–34, 236–37 lead, 31, 35, 261 Lead-based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act, 39 lead-based paints, 38–40 leaded gasoline, 23–24, 40–44 Lead Industries Associaton, 39 lead poisoning, xi, 38–44, 192–93 Lempert, Richard O., 168 leukemia, 62–63, 66–67, 70–73, 75, 77, 203, 218, 219 Levy, Paul, 50 lie detector test, 162 life insurance, 13 lifespan, 4, Lilley, Floy, 58 liquor, 51 lithium, 215 litigation avoidance, 234 Little, Clarence Cook, liver, 34–35, 66, 155, 160 Lockheed Martin, 48, 56, 224, 225 365 London Principles, 88 Loomis, Dana, 194 ´ Lopez, Pete, 227 Lorain (Ohio), 125, 134, 135 Los Alamos (N.M.), 213, 217, 226–27, 257–58 Love Canal, 30, 51 lung cancer and asbestos, 16, 17, 50, 61, 62, 66, 82, 177, 232, 242 and beryllium, 128, 130, 132, 139, 141 and carbon black, 55 and chromium, 54, 98–100, 102, 104–7, 253 and exposure to PCBs, 163, 166 and radon, 220 and smoking, 4, 5, 9, 50, 66, 80, 82, 87, 177, 232 and uranium, 221 lung disease, 110–19, 221, 247 Luntz, Frank, xi, 197–98, 201 Lurie, Peter, 102, 159, 207 Machle, Willard, 125, 127 MacMahon, Brian, 130, 132, 141 malaria, 20, 202 Maltoni, Cesare, 35, 36 mammals, 67 Mancuso, Thomas, 27, 36, 98, 100, 104, 128, 129, 217–18 Manhattan Institute, 164 Manhattan Project, 124–25, 213 manufactured uncertainty, x, 124, 137, 140 Manufacturing Chemists Association, 93 Marathon Oil, 77 Markowitz, Gerald, 35, 38, 39 Marshall, Ray, 130 Marshall Islands, 218 Martin Marietta (co.), 224 Massachusetts, 126 mattress flammability, 239 mauve, 20 Maxcy, Margaret, 58 Mazzocchi, Tony, 113 McGarity, Tom, 169, 183 366 index McLaren/Hart Environmental Engineering Corporation, 51 McWane, Inc., 262 meatpacking industry, 120 media, 5, 29 medical journals See journals Medicare Prescription Drug bill, 207–8 medications See drugs Merck and Company, 146–48, 157, 240, 255 mercury, 41–42, 50–51, 56, 203, 215 Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 161, 162, 163, 167 Merton, Robert, 244 mesothelioma, 17–18, 61, 232 meta-analysis, 54, 68, 73 Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 39 Mexico, 96 microwave popcorn, 110–19, 234, 247 Miller, Richard, 228 Milloy, Steven, 58 mine safety, 33 Mine Safety and Health Administration, 33 Missouri, 110–11 MOCA/MBOCA, 95 model building, 68 Montefiore Medical Center/Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 19 Mooney, Chris, 202 Morgan Lewis (law firm), 181 mortality studies, 63–65 Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 55 MTBE (metyl tertiary-butyl ether), 46, 48 multiple myeloma, 219 musculoskeletal conditions, 120, 121, 123 Nader, Ralph, 91 Nagasaki ( Japan), 217, 218, 219 naproxen, 143, 146, 147, 148 NASA See National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Academy of Sciences, 41, 56, 121, 122, 181, 184, 186–89, 195, 199, 202, 255 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 200–201 National Assessment on Climate Change, 181, 199 National Association of Manufacturers, 189 National Cancer Institute, 72, 76, 77, 87, 93, 203, 206, 219 National Center for Environmental Health, 193 National Coalition on Ergonomics, 122 National Highway Traffic and Safety Administration, 234 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) benzene study, 70–76, 86 beryllium review, 127–31, 133–35, 139 bladder cancer studies, 92–95 chromium recommendations, 97–98, 105 and diacetyl, 11–12, 114–15, 118 formaldehyde study, 203 heart disease study, 83 orthotoluidine study, 92–94 study sections, 194 and vinyl chloride, 36 National Institutes of Health, 182, 206, 256 National Lead Company, 39 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 200–201, 210, 211 National Soft Drink Association, 208 National Toxicology Program, 50, 131, 140 National Uniformity for Food Act, 264 National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program, 237 natural experiments, 60, 62, 70, 165 Navajo, 219, 220 needle exchange programs, 195, 207 Needleman, Herbert, 43–44 NEJM See New England Journal of Medicine Nelson, Gaylord, 247 Nelson v American Home Products Corp., 170 neptunium, 226 Nevada, 226, 228 New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM), 148, 159, 245 New Jersey, 52, 100 Newman, Randy, 30 index New Mexico, 219 Nexium, 159–60 Niagara Falls (N.Y.), 30, 92, 93–94 nicotine, 3, 10, 90 9/11 terrorist attack, 238 NIOSH See National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Nissen, Steven, 233 nitrogen dioxide, 31 Nixon, Richard, 30, 31, 33, 39, 43 NOAA See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration nonexclusive compensation scheme, 237–38 nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), 143, 145, 146, 149 North Dakota Lignite Research Council, 50 Novartis, 27 NSAIDs See nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 228–29 nuclear weapons, 125, 140, 196, 212, 214, 215, 220, 257–58, 259 nuclear weapons workers, x, xii, 122, 125, 212, 214, 217–31, 236, 237, 261 Oak Ridge (Tenn.), 213, 214, 215, 223–26 obesity, 48, 56, 208, 209 Occidental Chemical, 31–32 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and benzene exposure standards, 71, 73–76 beryllium standard, 126, 131, 138–39, 140 and chromium standards, 97–110, 253 creation of, 30, 258 ergonomics standard, 121, 123, 195 move to regulate benzidine, 91, 94 and ‘‘popcorn lung,’’ 110–19, 234 possible conflict of interest in studies, 246 regulation of corporations, 232 risk assessments, 69, 99 and smoking, 3, 50, 80, 83–85, 90 standards, 31–32, 70, 97–100, 120–23, 174, 234, 242, 254, 258 367 and state governments, 263 surrender to special interests, 202 vinyl chloride exposure levels, 36, 37, 45 weakness of chemical hazard regulation, 241 Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases (Hueper), 24 Office of Management and Budget (OMB), ix, 178, 180, 183–90, 225 Oil, Chemical, and Atomic Workers Union, 43, 91, 99, 222 oil industry, 72, 73, 77, 78, 201–2, 262 oil refineries, 72, 73, 77 OMB See Office of Management and Budget omeprazole, 159–60 Ong, Elisa, 58 optic neuropathy, 171 ortho-toluidine (OT), 92–94, 96 Orville Redenbacher popcorn, 118 Orwell, George, xi OSHA See Occupational Safety and Health Administration OT See orthotoluidine Oxford University, 148 Oxley, Michael, 244 ozone, 31, 45 Pachauri, Rajendra, 199 Pacific Gas and Electric, 52 Paducah (Ky.), 213, 216, 225–26 pain, 146 paint, 38–40 Pantex (co.), 227 Parkinson’s disease, 49 Parlodel, 171–72 Parmet, Allan, 110, 114 particulate matter, 31, 57 patents, 243 Patterson, Clair, 41, 42 Paustenbach, Dennis, 51, 52, 74–75, 76, 100, 103, 138, 193 Paxil, 233 PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), 30, 52, 163, 166, 248 peer review, 53–55, 57, 181, 183–90, 199 Pennsylvania, 221 368 index Peoples, Eric, 116 perchlorates, 46, 48 perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), 49–50 Perkin, William Henry, 20 pesticides, 29, 49, 183, 260 petroleum See oil industry PFOA See perfluorooctanoic acid phantom papers, 157 pharmaceutical industry, 143–60, 189, 247, 250, 255–56 Pharmacia (co.), 150 Phase One trials, 145 Phase Two trials, 145 Phase Three trials, 145, 153 phenylpropanolamine (PPA), 155–57 Philip Morris, 50, 58, 80–81, 83–85, 88, 177, 179, 232 PHS See Public Health Service phthalates, 46 Piomelli, Sergio, 192 placebos, 145, 146, 147, 148, 154 plastics industry, 34–37 Pliofilm, 70 plutonium, 213–15, 218, 220, 221, 225–26 plywood industry, 203 Poland, 96 policy, xi polychlorinated biphenyls See PCBs Polyurethane Manufacturers Association, 95 polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 34–35 popcorn, 110–19, 234, 247 Popcorn Board, 116 Pope, Arden, 57 Pope, Carl, 155 Pop Weaver popcorn, 119 Portsmouth (Ohio), 213, 226 postpartum lactation, 171 Powers, Marty, 132 PPA See phenylpropanolamine precautionary principle, 61 preemption by preamble, 238–40 pregnancy, 56, 161, 193, 205, 206 preponderance of evidence, 171 Prescription Drug User Fee Act, 152–53 Presidential Science Advisory Committee, 29 Preuss, Otto, 132 Prilosec, 159–60 probability, 62 product defense industry, x, 46–53, 57, 77, 88, 117, 140, 145, 156, 181, 193, 243, 246, 251, 252, 254 product design, 234–35 product liability, 164, 234–35 Project on Scientific Knowledge and Public Policy, 193 proof, 61 Propulsid, 153 prostate cancer, 49 protective standard, 100 Provo (Utah), 57 Prozac, 160 Prudential Life Insurance Company, 13 Psaty, Bruce, 154 pseudoephedrine, 156 Public Citizen, x, 83, 99, 101–2, 104, 108, 159 Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility, 210 public health, 30, 31, 46, 54–56, 60–61, 68, 174–75, 183, 190, 209, 234–35, 237, 241–42, 245–47, 249, 254–55, 263–65 Public Health Service (PHS), 14–15, 220 public policy, xii pulmonary hypertension, 233 PVC See polyvinyl chloride QAMA See Quebec Asbestos Mining Association Quality Window Cleaning, 237 Quebec Asbestos Mining Association (QAMA), 16, 18 Quill, Terry, 54 quinine, 20 qui tam lawsuit, 225 radiation, 62, 82, 214, 217–21, 228, 229, 236, 258, 259, 261 Radiation-exposed Veterans Compensation Act, 218 Radiation Exposure Compensation Act (RECA), 220, 221, 226, 230 radioactive scrap metal, 216 index radioactive waste, 215, 225 radium, 125 radon, 220 Rampton, Sheldon, 56, 85 Rand Corporation, 234 randomized clinical trials, 143, 145, 153 Raritan River, 19 REACH (registration, evaluation, and authorization of chemicals), 208, 249 Reagan, Ronald, x, 99, 199, 215, 216 reanalysis, 251–52, 253 RECA See Radiation Exposure Compensation Act regulation by shaming, 257–58 regulatory agencies, xi, 30–31, 46, 152, 173–74, 179, 190, 203, 233, 234, 241–42, 246, 254, 256, 258 See also specific agencies regulatory system, 179–80, 187, 197, 210, 233, 241, 244 Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 53, 54 Rehn, Ludwig, 21 Rehnquist, William, 163, 165, 171 Reid, Harry, 228 Reilly, William K., 136 relevance, 162 reliability, 162 Rennie, Drummond, 159 repetitive strain injuries, 120–23 ‘‘Reports on Tobacco and Health Research,’’ Republican Party, 31, 120, 121, 233 Revkin, Andrew C., 200 Reye’s syndrome, ix, 158–59 Rezulin, 155 rhabdomyelosis, 153 Rhode Island, 39 Richardson, Bill, 223, 224, 227, 228 rigged data reanalysis, 251–52 right-to-know laws, 32 ringworm, 160 Rinsky, Robert, 71 risk assessment, 68–69, 74–75 R.J Reynolds, 50, 51, 82, 83–84, 87, 133, 173 Robbins, Tony, 236 369 Robertson, Leon, 51 Rochon, Paula, 143 Roe, Sam, 130 rofecoxib, 146 Rogers, Harold, 216 Rose, Cecile, 119 Rosner, David, 35, 38, 39 Roth, H Daniel, 50, 51, 83, 85, 130, 134, 141 Rove, Karl, 202 rubber hydrochloride, 70–73 rubber industry, 26 Ruckelshaus, Willliam, 69 Safe Drinking Water Act, 241 safety, 30, 47, 236 St George (Utah), 219 salt, 182, 183 Salt Institute, 182 Samet, Jonathan, 57 Sandefur, Thomas, Sandoz Pharmaceutical Corporation, 171 Saracci, Rodolfo, 134 Saranac Laboratory (N.Y.), 14, 16, 127 Sarbanes, Paul, 244 Sarbanes-Oxley, 244 sarcoma, 127 Scalia, Eugene, 122 Scannell, Gerard F., 136 Schantz, Susan, 53 Schering-Plough, 160 Schlesinger, James R., 130 science advice for government, 195 advisory committees, 255–57 Daubert test, 162–73 debating, xi, 198, 201–2 disclosure of sponsors of studies, 245–47 at EPA, 184–85 equal treatment for public and private, 253–55 and government, 245 for hire, 46–49, 254 integrity of, 61, 196, 244–65 junk, xi–xii, 57–58, 122, 164, 179, 197, 202 linked to commerce, 243–44 370 index science (continued) manipulation of, 198, 205, 206, 209 peer review, 184–86 politicization of, 195, 245 protection of independence of federal scientists, 255–57 regulatory agencies’ use of, 174 rigged data reanalysis, 251–52 secrecy in, 249–51 in service of corporations, 70–78, 243 Shelby Amendment, 177 ‘‘sound,’’ xi–xii, 3, 58, 85, 88, 174, 178, 190, 197, 198, 235, 253 of tobacco industry, 79–82, 84, 86, 90 use in regulation, 187 Science in the Private Interest (Krimsky), 247 Science magazine, xi, 76, 189, 193–94, 195, 211, 246 scientific method, 162, 172 Scully, Tom, 207–8 secondhand smoke, 3, 4, 50, 52, 53, 79–90, 133, 179 secrecy, 235–36, 249–51 Secretary of Energy Advisory Board, 196 Securities and Exchange Commission, 178 seizures, 171 Seldes, George, 4–5 selection bias, 64 selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors See SSRIs Selikoff, Irving, 18, 29, 36, 82, 177 Seventh Amendment, 163, 167, 168 sexually transmitted diseases, 205–6 Shalala, Donna, 207 Shapiro, Stuart, 186–87 Shelby, Richard, 176, 178 Shelby Amendment, 88, 176–77, 185, 190, 253 Shell Oil Company, 72, 74, 202 Shy, Carl, 130 Silent Spring (Carson), 29 silicosis, 13–14, 125, 228 Six Cities Study, 176 Six Flags Theme Parks, Inc., 48 60 Minutes, 4, 201 Small Business Advocate, 254 Small Business Regulatory Fairness Act, 122, 254 Smith, Kenneth W., 17 Smith, Richard, 144, 185 smoking, 3–10, 19, 29, 66, 79, 83, 90, 100, 134, 177 See also secondhand smoke; tobacco industry ‘‘Smoking and Carcinoma of the Lung’’ (Doll and Hill), soft drinks, 48 Solomon, Daniel, 147 Song of the Canary (documentary), 31 ‘‘sound science,’’ xi–xii, 3, 58, 85, 88, 174, 178, 190, 197, 198, 235, 253 Souter, Mark, 205 South Carolina, 236 Southern Co., 56 Soviet Union, 213, 214, 215 Specialty Steel Industry of North America, 106 Spitzer, Eliot, 157, 233 SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors), 157–58 standardized mortality ratio, 64 Standard Oil, 40 State Farm Insurance, 234 state government, 263–64 statin medications, 256 Stauber, John, 56, 85 Steinzor, Rena, 183 Stelfox, Henry Thomas, 144 stem cell research, 195, 196 sterility, 31–32 Stevens, John Paul, 165 Stokinger, Herbert, 126 stomach cancer, 52 strategic ignorance, 155, 252 Strickland, Ted, 141 stroke, 147, 155–56, 171 study sections, 194–95 Sudafed, 156 sugar, 208 suicide, 157–58, 233 sulfur dioxide, 31 sulfuric acid mist, 135–36 Swetonic, Matt, 18, 133 index Switzerland, 21, 22, 28 Syngenta (co.), 49 synthetic rubber See rubber hydrochloride TASSC See The Advancement of Sound Science Coalition tax cuts, 211 ‘‘taxicab standard,’’ 125–27, 129 Taylor, Michael, 188 Teller, Edward, 212 terrorism, 211 tetraethyl lead See ethyl Thacker, Paul, 49 The Advancement of Sound Science Coalition (TASSC), 58, 85 think tanks, 55–56 Thompson, Tommy, 194, 195, 196, 209 Thoreau, Henry David, 29 Thurmond, Strom, 228 Time magazine, 30, 215 Times Beach (Mo.), 51 tire defects, 233–34 Titanic, 239 titanium, 39 tobacco industry, 38, 50 advertising, 5, 10, 90 civil litigation in, 30 and Data Quality Act, 178–79, 190, 191 defense of secondhand smoke, 79–90, 133, 177 denials of health hazards, doubt as strategy of, x, 3–11 and expert witnesses, 173 and health, 6–10 and press, science of, 79–82, 84, 86, 90 sequestering of data, 242 Tobacco Industry Research Committee, 6, 7, 10, 127 Torkelson, Theodore, 32, 34 tort reform, 164, 235 toxic chemicals, 32–33, 46, 208, 210, 214, 242, 247–50, 258, 264 toxicity, 249–51, 261–63, 264 toxicology studies, 67 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 30, 247–51 371 toxic tort cases, 163, 164, 236 Tozzi, Jim, 58, 88, 179, 180 trade secrets, 250 Traditional Values Coalition, 206 Treasury Department, 211 Trenberth, Kevin, 211 Trichopoulos, Dimitrios, 135, 141 Trigg, Bruce, 205–6 Trudeau Sanatorium, 14 TSCA See Toxic Substances Control Act Tsuji, Joyce, 192 Udall, Stewart, 220 Udall, Tom, 220 Union Carbide, 210, 224, 225 Union of Concerned Scientists, 210, 244 United Food and Commercial Workers, 115 United Parcel Service, 120, 122 University of California, 86, 207, 227, 258 University of Michigan, 35 Upjohn Company, 94 uranium, 213, 214, 216, 219–21, 225–26, 230–31 uranium hexafluoride, 216 U.S Chamber of Commerce, 174, 182, 189 Utah, 220, 226 vaccines, 237 Vanity Fair, VaxGen (co.), 151 vehicle rollovers, 239 Veneman, Ann, 188 ventricular arrhythmia, 171 Viagra, 145 Vidmar, Neil, 168 vinyl chloride, 34–37, 45, 66, 175 Viola, Pierluigi, 35 Vioxx, 146–49, 153–55, 157, 160, 240, 255–56 Vladeck, David, 239 Voinovich, George, 226 Wagner, Wendy, 246 Walden (Thoreau), 29 Wall Street Journal, 52, 130 Warner-Lambert, 155 Warren, Christian, 42 372 index Washington Post, 225 WashTech (co.), 84 water, 48, 52, 54, 94, 202 Watkins, James D., 136, 137, 216 Watson, Robert, 198–99 Watson, Wayne, 119 Waxman, Henry, 147, 205, 206, 209 weight of evidence, 60, 68 Weinberg, Myron, 49, 81 Weinberg Group, 46, 49, 88, 156, 157 Weitzman, Micheal, 192 West Virginia, 210, 242 Whitecoat Project, 80–81 white lead, 39 Whitman, Christie Todd, x Wigand, Jeffrey, wildlife, 203–4 Willman, David, 155 Wolfe, Michael, 150 workers’ compensation, 14, 19, 222–24, 228, 236 workplace illnesses/injuries See specific industries, companies, and disorders workplace studies, 62–66 WorldCom (co.), 243, 252 World Health Organization, 202, 208, 242 W.R Grace and Company, 12 Yale University School of Medicine, 156 young adults, 157 Zapp, John, 92 Zhang JianDong, 52 zinc, 39 Zoloft, 158 .. .doubt is their product This page intentionally left blank DOUBT how industry’s assault on science IS THEIR threatens your health PRODUCT DAV I D M I C H A E L S 2008 Oxford University... permission of Oxford University Press Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Michaels, David, 1954– Doubt is their product : how industry’s assault on science threatens your health. .. Controversy! Contradiction! Other Factors! Unknowns!’’26 The industry understood that the public is in no position to distinguish good science from bad Create doubt, uncertainty, and confusion