(Luận văn) an explanation for vietnams recent migration pattern based on cumulative causation theory and relative deprivation theory

UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS HO CHI MINH CITY VIETNAM ERASMUS UNVERSITY ROTTERDAM INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL STUDIES THE NETHERLANDS t to ng hi VIETNAM – THE NETHERLANDS PROGRAMME FOR M.A IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS ep w n lo ad ju y th yi AN EXPLANATION FOR VIETNAM’S RECENT MIGRATION PATTERN BASED ON CUMULATIVE CAUSATION THEORY AND RELATIVE DEPRIVATION THEORY pl n ua al n va ll fu oi m at nh z k jm ht vb Vu Thu Ha z BY l.c gm MASTER OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS om an Lu n va ey t re HO CHI MINH CITY, DECEMBER 2017 UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS HO CHI MINH CITY VIETNAM INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL STUDIES THE HAGUE THE NETHERLANDS t to ng hi ep VIETNAM - NETHERLANDS PROGRAMME FOR M.A IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS w n lo ad ju y th yi AN EXPLANATION FOR VIETNAM’S RECENT MIGRATION PATTERN BASED ON CUMULATIVE CAUSATION THEORY AND RELATIVE DEPRIVATION THEORY pl n ua al n va ll fu m A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of oi MASTER OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS at nh z z k jm Vu Thu Ha ht vb By an Lu Prof Dr Nguyen Trong Hoai om l.c gm Academic Supervisor: n va ey t re HO CHI MINH CITY, DECEMBER 2017 DECLARATION t to I hereby declare that this thesis paper entitled “An explanation for Vietnam’s ng recent migration pattern based on cumulative causation theory and relative hi ep deprivation theory” has been written by me, representing the result of my own work, in compliance with the guidelines and disciplines of Vietnam Netherlands w n Programme The contribution of my supervisor and collaboration with others, lo ad specified in the acknowledgement, to fulfill this research are consistent with normal y th supervisory practice This dissertation, or any substantial part of this dissertation, ju has not been submitted for any previous qualifications or any other institutions yi pl Date: 01 December 2017 ua al Signature: _ Full name: Vu Thu Ha n n va ll fu oi m at nh z z k jm ht vb om l.c gm an Lu n va ey t re i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT t to It is impossible for me to finish my thesis without the guidance from my ng hi supervisor, Prof Dr Nguyen Trong Hoai, knowledges provided by Vietnam ep Netherlands Programme, help from my classmates and supports from my family w First and foremost, I would like to send my special thanks to my supervisor, n lo Prof Dr Nguyen Trong Hoai, who is always ready to steer me to the right direction, ad to give me useful advices when I have trouble with my research and to motivate me y th to explore my ability I am so grateful for all of his dedication and devoted attention ju yi in every single step in my journey of conducting this research Having a chance to pl work with him is really an unforgettable experience in my life ua al n I would also like to thank Dr Pham Khanh Nam, Dr Truong Dang Thuy and va all other lectures and mentors from Vietnam Netherlands Programme for their n ll fu valuable lessons, guidance and knowledge that they shared to me throughout the oi m program I appreciate all of wonderful experience and fantastic friends in class at nh VNP22 that I’m luckily obtained thanks to attaining this course z Last but not least, I must express my profound gratitude to my family for z vb providing me unconditional supports and unceasing encouragement that I can From bottom of my heart, I want to say thank you all k jm ht pursue my learning desire om l.c gm an Lu n va ey t re ii ABSTRACT t to This paper combines cumulative causation theory and relative deprivation ng theory to explain incentives and influences on decision to send migrants of a hi ep household, concerning interaction of the household’s characteristics, especially factors related to income, and the features of the origin community Two subsets of w data from two successive Vietnam Household Living Standards Surveys (VHLSS) n lo in period from 2010 to 2014 are established and employed to avoid endogeneity in ad y th the analysis of migration pattern in Vietnam in 2012 and 2014 By using logit ju method and combination of difference-in-difference (DID) and propensity matching yi score method (PSM), we find some interesting results that have never been found in pl ua al previous empirical studies for Vietnam case First, the competitiveness competence n level of the origin province may reduce possibility of work migrants Furthermore, va relative income status before migration event, represented by ratio of income per n ll fu capita of a household over the average income per capita in the origin province, oi m may positively affect the possibility of sending migrants of the household Then, at nh returns from migration, could create a significantly positive effect on the relative income status of the household at the origin via remittance channel, generating an z z automatic mechanism in migration progress as expected in the cumulative causation vb jm ht theory k Keywords: migration, cumulative causation theory, relative deprivation, gm remittance, relative income, PCI l.c JEL classification: O15, F24, D31 om an Lu n va ey t re iii TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ng hi ep Problem statement 1.2 Research questions 1.3 Research objectives 1.4 Data and methods Thesis structure w 1.1 n t to I lo 1.5 ad II LITERATURE REVIEWS y th Migration theory reviews 2.2 Relative deprivation theory 15 2.3 Remittance – the link between the migrants and their origin 17 2.4 Conceptual framework 18 2.5 Empirical studies 21 ju 2.1 yi pl n ua al va METHODOLOGY 26 n III The dataset 26 3.2 Main applicable concepts 27 3.3 Stage one: examining determinants of migration 29 ll fu 3.1 oi m nh Model 29 3.3.2 Variables 31 z z vb 3.4 at 3.3.1 Stage two: testing effects of migration 32 ht RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 35 jm IV Determinants for migration in Vietnam in 2012 and 2014 35 4.2 Impacts of migration on income and expenditure in Vietnam in 2012 and 2014 50 k 4.1 gm om l.c V CONCLUSION 60 Main findings 60 5.2 Policy implication 62 5.3 Limitation of the study 63 n a Lu 5.1 iv y Annex 2: Descriptive statistics of explanatories in year 2012 71 te re Annex 1: Descriptive statistics of explanatories in year 2010 68 n APPENDIX 68 va REFERENCES 64 LIST OF FIGURES t to ng hi Figure 1: A general framework of migration decision making 10 ep Figure 2: The conceptual framework for the migration pattern in relation with the relative income status of a household and the origin community 21 w n Figure 3: Difference-in-Difference estimation, graphical explanation 33 lo ad ju y th yi pl n ua al n va ll fu oi m at nh z z ht vb k jm om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re v LIST OF TABLES t to ng hi Table 1: Logit regressions of determinants of migration in period 2010-2012 36 ep Table 2: Logit regressions of determinants of migration in period 2012 -2014 42 w Table 3: Impact of migration on income and expenditure in 2012 52 n lo Table 4: Impact of migration on income and expenditure in 2014 55 ad ju y th yi pl n ua al n va ll fu oi m at nh z z ht vb k jm om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re vi ABBREVIATION t to ng hi ep w DID Difference-in-Difference PCI Provincial Competitive Index PSM Propensity Matching Score US or USA The United States of America n lo Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey VMS Vietnam Migration Survey ad VHLSS ju y th Viet Nam Demographic and Health Survey yi VNDHS Viet Nam Migration and Health Survey ua al World Trade Organization n WTO pl VNMHS n va ll fu oi m at nh z z ht vb k jm om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re vii I INTRODUCTION t to 1.1 Problem statement ng According to Migration Policy Institute (MPI), an independent, non-partisan, hi ep non-profit think tank of specialists and analysts on migration field, the year 2016 is a remarkable one for the migration worldwide Notably, the upheavals in the w n political and economic situation of powerful nations and affiliates lead to a dramatic lo ad crisis in movement of capital and labor around the world For example, the ju y th European migrant crisis began in 2015 with significantly increase of immigrants and refugees arrived in the European Union As stated by The New York Times, yi pl there are over 123,000 migrants landed in Greece in the two first months of 2016, al ua which is more than twenty times greater in comparison with the same period of n 2015 This fact challenges authorizes and policy-makers in the European Union to va n take prompt actions and provide relevant policy to better manage immigration fu ll issues and protect the living standard of native people In the United States of m oi America, one of the most powerful country in the world, the new president, Donald at nh Trump, takes office, pledging a fasten immigration policy in the US that including a z crackdown on illegal immigration, construction of border walls, reductions in z vb refugee and immigrant admissions, and greater screening of newcomers All of ht these facts and actions in the last recent years illustrate for the increasing jm k importance meaning of migration problem in association with the socio-economic gm situation om l.c The report of the World Trade Organization (WTO, 2008) notices the first explosion of migration happened in the 1950s as the consequence of the World a Lu Wars, then gradually increasing before booming in the latter half of the 20th century n y te re the diversification of sending countries and the spread in spectrums of economic, n population movements in the modern world as globalization of migration relating to va Castles, De Haas, and Miller (2013) describe the general patterns of International social and cultural background; having changes in the direction of dominant For work migration purpose, the data within years 2010 and 2012 significantly shows the Average Treatment effect on the Treated (ATT) in income per capita of t to household is about 3.5 million VND, equivalent to a growth of 25% This result ng hi refers the relative increase in income per capita of the treated household in 2012, ep compared to their counterpart who was obtained significantly higher per capita income before the event of migration in period from 2010 to 2012 Especially, the w n ATT in remittance per capita also significantly improve at about 2.8 million VND, lo ad occupied for more than 80% in improvement of income per capita in treated ju y th household However, there’s no statistically significant evidence for difference in yi consumption per expenditure of household or average income per capita in the pl province in this period As a consequence, the relative income status of the treated al n ua family has been promoted, at the significance level of 1% n va On other hand, unlike work migrants, the non-work migrants are reasons for ll fu remarkable addition of approximately 35% in consumption expenditure per capita oi m Perhaps, the possible explanation for this situation is that the non-work migration nh purposes normally are for education or marriage; and the family has to pay tuition at fee or subsidy for the wedding in these cases, leading to the increase of expenditure z It’s noted about evidence for relative reduction in average income per capita of the z vb origin community having household with migrants, especially non-work migrant ht k jm The predicted reason for this phenomenon is due to migration may create mitigation gm in the local labor force The effects of migration in general or for non-work l.c purposes on other indicators have much similarity to the case of work migration om The results imply for a hidden impacts of income on migration for initial non-work a Lu purposes in Vietnam n Additionally, the results for the same event study on dataset of VHLSS 2012- 59 y on both absolute income and relative income status of the household In associated te re second stage of migration, which stated that migration have significant influences n purposes These results provide supportive evidence for the hypothesis in the va 2014, presented in Table 4, show very consistent impacts of migration for different with the results in the first stage, it is possible to conclude that migration is a selffeeding process as mentioned in the cumulative causation theory of migration via t to reversal effects of income ng hi ep V CONCLUSION w n lo 5.1 Main findings As Vietnam is not outside the continuously increasing trend of migration in ad all over the world, further understanding related to migration is necessary We y th conduct the research on different motivations of migration, using data set of VHLSS ju yi in different periods of time, 2010-2012 and 2012-2014, to investigate the pl determinants and impact of migration in Vietnam By applying techniques of both al n ua logit regression and combination of difference-in-difference (DID) and propensity n va matching score method (PSM), we examine whether migration pattern in Vietnam fu is supported by cumulative causation theory and relative deprivation theory ll At first, the regression results show that initial purpose of migration may m oi alter incentives and outcomes of decision making process for movement of nh at members in a household For example, education of household head could z positively affect the existence of non-emigrant; it is not a remarkable factor in work z ht vb migration cases This distinction is quite similar to findings of C V Nguyen et al jm (2011) which studied migration pattern in Vietnam using VHLSS 2004 and 2006 k The evidence for concave relationships between likelihood of sending migrants in a gm l.c household and income level or age of household head is also found as referred in another research using VHLSS data from 2004 to 2006 of T P Nguyen et al om (2008) Notably, the advanced points of this paper, compared to other studies at a Lu migration in Vietnam, are not only at updated datasets but also on findings n 60 y competence of the origin province may reduce possibility of work migrants but te re possibility to migration The regression results indicate that competitiveness n representing competitiveness in business environment of a province, and the va regarding potential linkage of PCI at the origin area, which is a macro index having no significant effect on decision of sending non-work migration of the household More interestingly, the investigation shows evidence for undeniable role t to of relative income status of the household, measured by ratio of income per capita ng hi of household compared to average income per capita in the origin province, in ep migration process as mentioned in the relative deprivation theory and cumulative causation theory on migration Notwithstanding no optimal form presenting w n relationship between possibility to send migrants and relative income status is lo ad specified when examining two datasets constituted from data of three continuous y th VHLSS terms, it is possible to recommend that relative position in terms of income ju yi per capita of household in the origin province may positively affect the possibility pl of migration decision of household This result provides evidence proving a al n ua significant relationship between the movement decision of household and their n deprivation va relative income status at the origin community as in the hypothesis of relative fu ll Next, the crucial determinants of migration found at the first stage will be m oi employed in the second stage as elements to match household engaged in migration, nh at namely “treated group”, with the counterfactual one which having no migrants at z the research time, called “ matched control group”, by using propensity matching z ht vb score method Then, the real outcomes related to earnings and expenditures, which jm originated from migration, could be revealed by comparison the treated household k against its counterpart before and after the event of migration The difference-in- gm difference results concerning households properly sending work-migrants, non- om l.c work migrants and migrants in general show that migration is able to create significant improvement in household per capita income, remittance, consumption a Lu expenditure, and especially, their income status Thanks to these consequences, the n y te re effect with respect to the relative income status of the household in the province, as n situation of an emerging country like Vietnam, may create a significantly positive va second research question could be answered Returns from migration, particularly in a reference group, via remittance channel that is in accordance with the expectation 61 in the cumulative causation theory Moreover, in combination with results from the investigation of the first stage to determine factors affected decision of household to t to send migrants for different purposes, it is possible to conclude that migration has an ng hi automatic mechanism once it happened as predicted in the cumulative causation ep theory (Douglas S Massey, 1990; Stark & Taylor, 1989; Stark et al., 1986; J E Taylor, 1992) w n lo 5.2 Policy implication Since this investigation found the distinction of determinants on different ad y th purposes of migration, it is suggested that particular policies should be designed for ju yi better management of these groups of migrants For example, if the authorities pl ua al would like to prevent household from sending work migrants, instead of applying negatively challenging policies, they can put more efforts in enhancement of n n va administrative and legal procedures to create a favorable and competitive business oi m local residents ll fu environment to attract investment, generating more employment opportunities for Furthermore, as relative deprivation may affect to migration decision, nh at especially for non-work migration which occupies a majority part in migration z z pattern in Vietnam, the authorities should pay more attention on improvement of vb local infrastructures, public and social services, such as healthcare and education, to ht k jm increase satisfaction of local people on their standards of living, reducing gm motivation of non-work migration Thereby, the local consumption is leveraged, l.c leading to increase in local GDP, creating more jobs and welfares for poorer om migration is also better off Finally, this research is hopefully contributing a work to the literature of a Lu migration in Vietnam or emerging countries in general The study results may n y 62 te re that if the authorities can establish a relative equal society, especially in terms of n not only in terms of absolute value but also relative one Moreover, it is suggested va provide implication for policy makers to pay more attention into migration pattern living standards, they may control the development of migration and mitigate its negative impacts t to ng 5.3 Limitation of the study In addition, this research is inevitably having some limitations, such as hi ep selection of proxy variable for relative income position of household in the w reference group is based in related empirical study, instead of a theoretical basis; or n lo not conducting investigation in a bigger scale and longer period of time In addition, ad as the restricted information in the dataset and the purpose of studying, this research y th only examines migration in different groups of movement initial purposes In fact, ju yi there are many other ways to classify migration, such as internal and international pl ua al migration or four directions of movement between rural and urban areas Furthermore, even if the relationship between relative income per capita of n n va household compared to the average income per capita of the province and the ll fu possibility of migration in that area is significantly existed, the optimal form of this oi m relationship is still ambiguous Hence, opportunities to make improvement, expand scope of examination or apply more advanced analytical technique on investigation nh at migration issues in emerging countries for further researches are still available z z ht vb k jm om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re 63 t to REFERENCES ng hi ep Adams, R H., & Page, J (2005) Do international migration and remittances reduce poverty in developing countries? World development, 33(10), 1645-1669 Akerlof, G A (1997) Social distance and social decisions Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 1005-1027 Banister, J (1992) Vietnam: population dynamics and prospects Blanchflower, D G., Van Landeghem, B., & Oswald, A J (2009) Imitative obesity and relative utility Journal of the European Economic Association, 7(2-3), 528-538 Boyd, M (1989) Family and personal networks in international migration: recent developments and new agendas International migration review, 638-670 BUCHANAN, L., & PEÇANHA, S (11 March 2016) Europe Tries to Shut Down Routes as Migrant Flow Intensifies Retrieved 14/02/2017, 2017, from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/03/11/world/europe/europe-tries-to-shutdown-routes-as-migrant-flow-intensifies.html?_r=0 Castles, S., De Haas, H., & Miller, M J (2013) The age of migration: International population movements in the modern world: Palgrave Macmillan Chen, Y., & Cowell, F A (2017) Mobility in china Review of Income and Wealth, 63(2), 203-218 Coxhead, I., Nguyen, V C., & Vu, L H (2015) Migration in Vietnam: New Evidence from Recent Surveys Cu, C L (2005) Rural to urban migration in Vietnam Unpublished paper, Hanoi Dang, N A (1999) Market reforms and internal labor migration in Vietnam Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 8(3), 381-409 Dang, N A (2001) Rural labor out-migration in Vietnam: a multi-level analysis Migration in Vietnam-Theoretical Approaches and Evidence From a Survey Dang, N A., Goldstein, S., & McNally, J (1997) Internal migration and development in Vietnam International migration review, 312-337 Dang, N A., & Le, B D (2001) Women's migration and urban integration in the context of Doi Moi economic renovations Migration in Vietnam: Theoretical Approaches and Evidence from a survey Transport Communication Publishing House, Hanoi, 73-92 Dang, N A., & Nguyen, T L (2006) Vietnam Migration Survey 2004: Internal Migration and Related Life Course Events: Mimeo Hanoi: VASS Dang, N A., Tacoli, C., & Hoang, X T (2003) Migration in Vietnam: A review of information on current trends and patterns, and their policy implications Paper presented at the Regional Conference on Migration, Development and Pro-Poor Policy Choices in Asia, on Deshingkar, P (2006) Internal migration, poverty and development in Asia: Including the excluded IDS Bulletin, 37(3), 88-100 Docquier, F., & Rapoport, H (2003) Remittances and inequality: a dynamic migration model Ducanes, G M., & Balisacan, A M (2005) Multidimensional Poverty in the Philippines: Trend, Patterns, and Determinants Dupor, B., & Liu, W.-F (2003) Jealousy and equilibrium overconsumption The american economic review, 93(1), 423-428 Fawcett, J T (1989) Networks, linkages, and migration systems International migration review, 671-680 Fukase, E (2014) Job Opportunities in Foreign Firms and Internal Migration in Vietnam Asian Economic Journal, 28(3), 279-299 w n lo ad ju y th yi pl n ua al n va ll fu oi m at nh z z ht vb k jm om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re 64 t to ng hi ep Fussell, E., & Massey, D S (2004) The limits to cumulative causation: International migration from Mexican urban areas Demography, 41(1), 151-171 Groleau, D., Soulière, M., & Kirmayer, L J (2006) Breastfeeding and the cultural configuration of social space among Vietnamese immigrant woman Health & place, 12(4), 516-526 Hagen‐Zanker, J (2008) Why people migrate? A review of the theoretical literature Harris, J R., & Todaro, M P (1970) Migration, unemployment and development: a two-sector analysis The american economic review, 60(1), 126-142 Ishizuka, F (2013) International labor migration in Vietnam and the impact of receiving countries' policies: Institute of Developing Economies, Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO) Jones, R C (1992) US migration: an alternative economic mobility ladder for rural central Mexico Social Science Quarterly, 73(3), 496-510 Jones, R C (1995) Ambivalent journey: US migration and economic mobility in North-Central Mexico: University of Arizona Press Jones, R C (1998) Remittances and inequality: A question of migration stage and geographic scale Economic Geography, 74(1), 8-25 Katz, E., & Stark, O (1986) Labor migration and risk aversion in less developed countries Journal of labor Economics, 4(1), 134-149 Lee, E S (1966) A theory of migration Demography, 3(1), 47-57 Lewis, W A (1954) Economic development with unlimited supplies of labour The manchester school, 22(2), 139-191 Lipton, M (1980) Migration from rural areas of poor countries: the impact on rural productivity and income distribution World development, 8(1), 1-24 Liu, Y., & Yamauchi, F (2013) Population density, migration, and the returns to human capital and land: Highlights from Indonesia: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Lucas, R E (2005) International migration and economic development: Lessons from low-income countries: Edward Elgar Publishing Luttmer, E F (2005) Neighbors as negatives: relative earnings and well-being The Quarterly journal of economics, 120(3), 963-1002 Massey, D S (1986) The settlement process among Mexican migrants to the United States American Sociological Review, 670-684 Massey, D S (1990) Social Structure, Household Strategies, and the Cumulative Causation of Migration Population Index, 56(1), 3-26 doi: 10.2307/3644186 Massey, D S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., & Taylor, J E (1993) Theories of international migration: A review and appraisal Population and development review, 431466 Massey, D S., & España, F G (1987) The social process of international migration Science, 237(4816), 733-738 migrants, I w g o e o t h r o (1998) Measures to improve the situation and ensure the human rights and dignity of all migrant workers COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS Fiftyfourth session: Commission on Human Rights Mincer, J (1978) Family migration decisions Journal of political Economy, 86(5), 749-773 Nguyen, C V., Van den Berg, M., & Lensink, R (2011) The impact of work and non‐work migration on household welfare, poverty and inequality Economics of Transition, 19(4), 771-799 Nguyen, M C., & Winters, P (2011) The impact of migration on food consumption patterns: The case of Vietnam Food policy, 36(1), 71-87 Nguyen, T P., Tran, N T M T., Nguyen, T N., & Oostendorp, R (2008) Determinants and Impacts of Migration in Vietnam: Development and Policies Research Center (DEPOCEN), Vietnam w n lo ad ju y th yi pl n ua al n va ll fu oi m at nh z z ht vb k jm om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re 65 t to ng hi ep Niimi, Y., Pham, T H., & Reilly, B (2009) Determinants of remittances: Recent evidence using data on internal migrants in Vietnam Asian Economic Journal, 23(1), 19-39 Phan, D., & Coxhead, I (2010) Inter-provincial migration and inequality during Vietnam's transition Journal of Development Economics, 91(1), 100-112 Piore, M J (1979) Birds of passage: migrant labor and industrial societies Portes, A., Walton, J., & Labor, C (1981) the International System Acade-mic Press, Nueva York Ranis, G., & Fei, J C (1961) A theory of economic development The american economic review, 533-565 Ravenstein, E G (1889) The laws of migration Journal of the royal statistical society, 52(2), 241305 Runciman, W G (1966) Relative deprivation & social justice: Study attitudes social inequality in 20th century England Russell, S S (1986) Remittances from international migration: a review in perspective World development, 14(6), 677-696 Sandell, S H (1977) Women and the economics of family migration The Review of Economics and Statistics, 406-414 Schiller, N G., & Faist, T (2010) Migration, development, and transnationalization: a critical stance (Vol 12): Berghahn Books Semyonov, M., & Gorodzeisky, A (2005) Labor migration, remittances and household income: A comparison between Filipino and Filipina overseas workers International migration review, 39(1), 45-68 Sicular, T., Ximing, Y., Gustafsson, B., & Shi, L (2007) The urban–rural income gap and inequality in China Review of Income and Wealth, 53(1), 93-126 Sjaastad, L A (1962) The costs and returns of human migration Journal of political Economy, 70(5, Part 2), 80-93 Smith, J A., & Todd, P E (2005) Does matching overcome LaLonde's critique of nonexperimental estimators? Journal of econometrics, 125(1), 305-353 Stark, O (1984) Rural-to-urban migration in LDCs: a relative deprivation approach Economic development and cultural change, 32(3), 475-486 Stark, O (1991) The migration of labor Stark, O., & Levhari, D (1982) On migration and risk in LDCs Economic development and cultural change, 31(1), 191-196 Stark, O., & Taylor, J E (1989) Relative deprivation and international migration oded stark Demography, 26(1), 1-14 Stark, O., Taylor, J E., & Yitzhaki, S (1986) Remittances and inequality The economic journal, 96(383), 722-740 Stark, O., Taylor, J E., & Yitzhaki, S (1988) Migration, remittances and inequality: A sensitivity analysis using the extended Gini index Journal of Development Economics, 28(3), 309322 Taylor, J E (1992) Remittances and inequality reconsidered: Direct, indirect, and intertemporal effects Journal of Policy modeling, 14(2), 187-208 Taylor, J E., & Fletcher, P (2001) Remittances and Development in Mexico: The New Labour Economics of Migration: A Critical Review Rural Mexico Research Project, Taylor, L (1986) Synoptic dynamics, migration and the Rothamsted insect survey: Presidential address to the British Ecological Society, December 1984 Journal of Animal Ecology, 55(1), 1-38 Thêm, T N (2004) Tìm sắc văn hóa Việt Nam Hồ Chí Minh, NXB Tổng Hợp Thành Phố Hồ Chí Minh w n lo ad ju y th yi pl n ua al n va ll fu oi m at nh z z ht vb k jm om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re 66 t to ng hi ep Todaro, M P (1969) A model of labor migration and urban unemployment in less developed countries The american economic review, 59(1), 138-148 University, C Difference-in-Difference Estimation Population Health Methods Retrieved 14/02/2017, 2017, from https://www.mailman.columbia.edu/research/populationhealth-methods/difference-difference-estimation Wallerstein, I (1974) The rise and future demise of the world capitalist system: concepts for comparative analysis Comparative studies in society and history, 16(04), 387-415 Wiest, R E (1984) External dependency and the perpetuation of temporary migration to the United States Wilson, W J (2012) The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy: University of Chicago Press WTO (2008) World Trade report WTO: WTO Zang, R K X.-b (1998) WHICH REGIONAL INEQUALITY? THE EVOLTION OF RURAL-URBAN AND INLAND-COASTAL INEQUALITY IN CHINA, 1983-1995 (Department of Agricultural, Resource, and Managerial Economics,Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-7801 USA) Zhang, K H., & Shunfeng, S (2003) Rural–urban migration and urbanization in China: Evidence from time-series and cross-section analyses China Economic Review, 14(4), 386-400 Zhang, Y., & Eriksson, T (2010) Inequality of opportunity and income inequality in nine Chinese provinces, 1989–2006 China Economic Review, 21(4), 607-616 Zhao, Y (1999) Leaving the countryside: rural-to-urban migration decisions in China The american economic review, 89(2), 281-286 Zhu, N (2002) The impacts of income gaps on migration decisions in China China Economic Review, 13(2), 213-230 w n lo ad ju y th yi pl n ua al n va ll fu oi m at nh z z ht vb k jm om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re 67 ad ju y th yi pl n ua al n va APPENDIX m ll fu Annex 1: Descriptive statistics of explanatories in year 2010 7.25 5.49 1.10 1.01 0.26 max mean max 11.99 9.34 7.51 11.30 9.44 7.25 11.99 10.83 5.42 1.10 10.02 5.48 1.10 10.83 0.08 0.91 0.12 0.11 3.98 0.99 0.24 0.08 10.76 57.68 48.91 69.77 57.51 49.77 67.22 57.66 48.91 69.77 0.50 0.59 0.51 0.22 0.17 0.21 0.19 0.14 0.19 0.27 0.34 0.28 0.08 0.08 0 1 0.08 0.04 0 1 0.08 0.08 0 1 0.15 0.23 0.17 z 9.47 mean Household having migrants ht at nh z vb 10.76 k jm om l.c gm an Lu va n y te re ac th Income per capita (in logarithm) Remittance per capita (in logarithm) Relative incomes status rural =0, urban =1 Provincial Competitiveness Index (PCI) Nearby enterprises, factories or traditional occupation villages (yes =1) Red River Delta Midlands and Northern Mountainous Areas Northern and Coastal Central Region Central Highlands Southeastern Area Mekong Delta Household with work migrants oi Variables Household with non-work migrants mean max si g e cd 68 jg hg ad ju y th yi pl n ua al Variables Household with work migrants mean max Household having migrants mean max 0.11 0.17 4.91 50.49 21 15.00 99.00 4.81 51.98 2.00 25.00 15.00 85.00 4.85 50.66 21 15.00 99.00 0.24 0.22 1 0.80 0.83 1 0.15 0.18 0.07 0.10 0.67 0.05 0.80 0.09 0.60 0.15 0.67 0.07 0.51 z 0.84 oi m ll 0.22 at fu 0.18 nh n va z 0.11 0.05 0.04 0.09 0.09 0.15 0.67 0.13 0.07 0.07 0.52 0.49 k jm ht 0.19 y te vb om l.c gm Lu an va n re 0.67 ac th Ethnic Minorities ( Kinh = 0; others=1) Household size Age of household head Gender of household head (male = 0, female = 1) Head lives with spouse (yes = 1) Head completed technical degree or post-secondary degrees Head’s spouse completed technical degrees or postsecondary degrees Ratio of members with technical degrees to total household members Ratio of members with postsecondary degrees to total household members Ratio of members younger than 15 to total household members Ratio of members older than 60 to total household members Ratio of female members to Household with non-work migrants mean max si g e cd 69 jg hg ad ju y th yi pl n ua al Variables Household with work migrants mean max Household having migrants mean max n va 17.71 100.00 16.00 3.33 80.00 17.61 100.00 0.85 0.81 0.84 1 0.16 0.14 1 0.03 0.02 13,000.00 366.23 16,550.00 413.87 16,550.00 11,250.00 257.77 20,000.00 5,000.00 84.08 16,666.67 47.79 1,666.67 27.87 7,666.67 1,200.00 27.42 1,666.67 nh at 0.13 oi m ll fu 416.84 271.82 20,000.00 238.83 85.95 16,666.67 50.68 26.03 7,666.67 25.42 1,666.67 z 0.02 jm z ht vb k l.c gm 39.13 om 929 208 1075 an Lu total household members Household area per capita (m2) House made of Permanent materials House made of semipermanent materials House of Temporary Materials Annual crop land (m2) per capita Perennial crop land (m2) per capita Forestry land (m2) per capita Agriculture surface (m2) per capita Gardens, ponds near resident area (m2) per capita Number of observations Household with non-work migrants mean max va n y te re ac th si g e cd 70 jg hg ad ju y th yi pl ua al n Annex 2: Descriptive statistics of explanatories in year 2012 va max mean max 9.85 7.96 12.04 9.87 7.84 13.57 1.72 10.66 6.02 1.72 10.71 5.97 1.72 10.71 1.06 0.70 0.12 29.10 1.04 0.79 0.14 6.37 1.07 0.71 0.12 29.10 56.95 45.12 63.79 57.19 45.12 63.79 57.04 45.12 63.79 0.47 0.51 0.47 0.22 0.25 0.21 0.18 0.15 0.17 0.27 0.25 0.27 0.07 0.08 0.18 0 1 0.04 0.04 0.26 an 1 0.06 0.08 0.20 0 1 0.17 0.17 y te 0.17 4.62 50.39 19.00 11 90.00 4.32 49.85 2.00 19.00 9.00 80.00 4.56 50.47 19.00 11 90.00 at nh 5.97 7.84 13.57 oi 9.87 mean Household having migrants m ll fu z z k jm ht vb gm om l.c Lu n 0 va re ac th Income per capita (in logarithm) Remittance per capita (in logarithm) Relative incomes status rural =0, urban =1 Provincial Competitiveness Index (PCI) Nearby enterprises, factories or traditional occupation villages (yes =1) Red River Delta Midlands and Northern Mountainous Areas Northern and Coastal Central Region Central Highlands Southeastern Area Mekong Delta Ethnic Minorities ( Kinh = 0; others=1) Household size Age of household head Household with work migrants n Variables Household with non-work migrants mean max si g e cd 71 jg hg ad ju y th yi pl n ua al Variables Household with work migrants mean max mean max 0.22 0.21 1 0.82 0.83 0.16 0.13 0.16 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.07 jm 0.07 0.60 0.07 0.06 0.75 0.06 0.14 0.71 0.09 0.67 0.13 0.71 0.08 0.05 0.67 0.08 0.51 0.48 0.50 19.19 3.20 100.00 19.89 3.33 106.67 y te 19.49 3.20 106.67 0.31 0.26 0.30 m ll fu 0.21 Household having migrants nh n va 0.83 oi at z z ht vb k gm 0.07 om l.c an Lu va n re ac th Gender of household head (male = 0, female = 1) Head lives with spouse (yes = 1) Head completed technical degree or post-secondary degrees Head’s spouse completed technical degrees or postsecondary degrees Ratio of members with technical degrees to total household members Ratio of members with postsecondary degrees to total household members Ratio of members younger than 15 to total household members Ratio of members older than 60 to total household members Ratio of female members to total household members Household area per capita (m2) House made of Permanent Household with non-work migrants mean max si g e cd 72 jg hg ad ju y th yi pl n ua al Variables Household with work migrants mean max Household having migrants mean max n va fu 0.62 0.63 0.62 0.07 0.11 0.07 871.91 8,720.00 740.85 15,666.67 139.44 7,500.00 218.88 15,000.00 7,500.00 0 9.96 7,500.00 oi m ll nh 15,666.67 236.03 15,000.00 11.09 57.45 10,368.00 ht 1.78 280.80 51.63 10,368.00 2.98 1,084.00 12.33 1,266.67 4.63 1,266.67 711.75 at z z k jm gm 158 987 om l.c 887 vb materials House made of semipermanent materials House of Temporary Materials Annual crop land (m2) per capita Perennial crop land (m2) per capita Forestry land (m2) per capita Agriculture surface (m2) per capita Gardens, ponds near resident area (m2) per capita Number of observations Household with non-work migrants mean max an Lu va n y te re ac th si g e cd 73 jg hg