(Luận văn) ambivalent attitude towards green products, evidence from vietnam

t to ng hi ep UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS HO CHI MINH CITY w n International School of Business lo ad - ju y th yi pl n ua al n va Truong Duong Tam ll fu oi m at nh AMBIVALENT ATTITUDE TOWARDS GREEN z z PRODUCTS: EVIDENCE FROM VIETNAM k jm ht vb om l.c gm MASTER OF BUSINESS (Honours) n a Lu n va y te re th Ho Chi Minh City – 2015 t to ng hi ep UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS HO CHI MINH CITY w n International School of Business lo ad - ju y th yi pl ua al n Truong Duong Tam n va ll fu oi m AMBIVALENT ATTITUDE TOWARDS GREEN nh at PRODUCTS: EVIDENCE FROM VIETNAM z z ht vb k jm ID: 22130065 om l.c gm MASTER OF BUSINESS (Honours) n a Lu SUPERVISOR: DR LE NHAT HANH n va y te re th Ho Chi Minh City - 2015 -i- t to ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ng hi Firstly, I would like to express my gratefulness to my supervisor Dr Le Nhat Hanh for ep her intensive support, valuable suggestions, instructions and encouragement during my w research time period n lo Besides my supervisor, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Professor ad Nguyen Dinh Tho, Professor Nguyen Dong Phong, Dr Tran Ha Minh Quan, Dr Nguyen Thi y th Mai Trang, Dr Nguyen Thi Nguyet Que, Dr Nguyen Phong Nguyen and other lecturers for ju yi their valuable time as the members of the ISB research committee Their comments and pl meaningful suggestions have significantly contributed to this research al n ua I would like to sincerely thank all of my teachers at International School of Business – Master’s course n va University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City for their teaching and guidance during my fu ll Additionally, I would like to give my special thanks to my family for their supports m oi either in financially or mentally They are the ones who supported me throughout the way I at nh managed to complete my thesis z Ho Chi Minh City, December, 2015 z k jm ht vb gm Truong Duong Tam om l.c n a Lu n va y te re th - ii - ABSTRACT t to The comprehensive review of literature reveals that there is a shortage of research ng hi regarding to the ambivalent attitude toward green products This research aims to explore the ep predictors as well as predictive effect of ambivalent attitude toward green products in Vietnam w Accordingly, new negative perceptions are added in model to distinguish this study from n lo previous researches The conceptual framework and hypotheses development are grounded on ad related literature A qualitative study was conducted by in-depth interviews of eight consumers y th ju in order to modify the Vietnamese versions of the questionnaire and main survey This study yi was then undertaken with 310 respondents to test the measurement and the structural model pl ua al The results demonstrated the reliability and the validity of the final measurement model, which were consistent with market information and the hypotheses which were accepted A n n va framework model illustrated greenwashing, perceived consumer skepticism, green consumer ll fu confusion and green perceived risk have positive influence on ambivalent attitude toward green oi m products Specifically, it was also revealed that the important role of green consumer confusion in relation to ambivalent attitude toward green products, compared to that of the rest of nh at antecedents in the context of Vietnam Through the mediator role of ambivalence, this paper z z also examined the resistance to change as its consequence vb The results contributed to the extent of knowledge of ambivalent attitude as well as its ht k jm antecedents and consequences in the field of green marketing, especially in Vietnamese market gm In addition, it provided practical implications for marketing managers in order to understand clearer attitude of consumers, from that they can build appropriate strategies to approach target om l.c consumers skepticism, green consumer confusion, green perceived risk and the resistance to change n a Lu Keywords: ambivalent attitude toward green products, greenwashing, perceived consumer n va y te re th - iii - TABLE OF CONTENTS t to ACKNOWLEGEMENT i ng hi ABSTRACT ii ep TABLE OF CONTENT iii w LIST OF FIGURES vi n lo LIST OF TABLES vii ad CHAPTER – INTRODUCTION y th ju 1.1 Research background yi 1.2 Statement of the problem pl ua al 1.3 Research objectives 1.4 Research methodology and research scope n n va 1.5 Research contribution fu 1.6 Research structure ll CHAPTER – LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT oi m 2.1 Introduction nh at 2.2 Ambivalent attitude toward green products z z 2.3 Theoretical background 10 vb 2.4 Hypotheses development 13 ht k jm 2.4.1 Greenwashing & ambivalent attitude toward green products 13 gm 2.4.2 Perceived consumer skepticism & ambivalent attitude toward green products 14 2.4.3 Green consumer confusion & ambivalent attitude toward green products 16 l.c om 2.4.4 Green perceived risk & ambivalent attitude toward green products 17 a Lu 2.4.5 Ambivalent attitude toward green products & resistance to change 18 2.5 The proposal model and hypotheses of the research 20 n n va 2.6 Summary 21 3.2.1 Research process 23 3.2.2 Measurement scales 24 th 3.2 Research design 23 y 3.1 Introduction 23 te re CHAPTER – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 23 - iv - 3.2.3 Questionnaire design 27 t to 3.3 Measurement refinements 28 ng hi 3.4 Quantitative study 29 ep 3.4.1 Sample method 29 w 3.4.2 Data collection and procedure 31 n lo 3.4.3 Data analysis method 32 ad 3.5 Summary 32 y th ju CHAPTER – DATA ANALYSIS 34 yi 4.1 Introduction 34 pl ua al 4.2 Respondent‘s demographic 34 4.3 Reliability and Validity test 36 n n va 4.3.1 Reliability test 36 ll fu 4.3.2 Validity test 37 oi m 4.4 Confirmed factor analysis (CFA) 40 4.5 Structural equation modeling (SEM) 42 nh at 4.6 Bootstrap method 43 z z 4.7 Discussion of research findings 44 vb 4.8 Summary 47 ht k jm CHAPTER - CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION AND LIMITATION 49 gm 5.1 Conclusion 49 5.2 Managerial implications 50 l.c om 5.3 Limitation and further research 54 REFERENCES 56 APPENDICES Appendix A: Questionnaire in English version n a Lu va n Appendix B: Questionnaire in Vietnamese version Appendix F: Standardized Regression Weights 10 Appendix G: Bootstrap Distribution 11 th Appendix E: Observation distribution test y Appendix D: In-depth Interview’ refinement measurement scale te re Appendix C: List of in-depth interview participants -v- LIST OF FIGURES t to Figure 2.1 A theoretical framework 21 ng hi Figure 3.1 Research process 24 ep Figure 4.1 Final measurement model 41 w Figure 4.2 Structural results (standardized estimates) 43 n lo ad ju y th yi pl n ua al n va ll fu oi m at nh z z k jm ht vb om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re th - vi - LIST OF TABLES t to Table 2.1 Operational definitions of variables used 20 ng hi Table 3.1 Sources of measurement scale 26 ep Table 3.2 Calculating sample with quota sampling method 30 w Table 3.3 Source of data collection 32 n lo Table 4.1 Respondent’s characteristics 35 ad Table 4.2 Convergent and discriminant validity of the model constructs 38 y th ju Table 4.3 Correlation matrix 39 yi Table 4.4 Correlation among constructs 40 pl ua al Table 4.5 Unstandardized structural paths 42 Table 4.6 Regression weights (Bootstrap standard error) 44 n n va ll fu oi m at nh z z k jm ht vb om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re th CHAPTER – INTRODUCTION t to ng 1.1 Research background hi “Seven billion dreams One planet Consume with care” is the slogan claimed by The ep United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) for the World Environment Day (WED) 2015 in w the context of the increasing climate change currently faced by humans According to Galizzi n lo (2006), 34 years after the first World Environment Day which was established by the UN ad y th General Assembly at Stockholm in 1972, the global community has made efforts to bring ju environmental issues into the agenda at international and national levels Yet the global yi environment in general has not remarkably improved pl ua al It must be pointed out that due to the weak effort in environmental protection of n humans, the abnormal climate phenomenon occurs at increasingly frequent and severe pace in va recent years (Kuo and Chang, 2015) The main cause of abnormal phenomena which has been n ll fu widely reported by scientists and organizations is carbon emission Reducing carbon emission oi m as well as negative effects for the environment is a shared responsibility not only of nations but nh also of organizations and each individual At macro level, many nations have put in place at legislation with specific policy and goal to raise the public concern about the environment and z z promote low-carbon economy For instance, in South Australia, the government claimed that vb jm ht their target was a 60 per cent reduction on 1990 levels by 2050 (Weatherill, 2015) or 40 per cent below 1990 levels by 2030 in North America (Brown, 2015) while in Vietnam, this k gm number is at least to per cent per year by 2030 (Nguyen, 2013) As a result, public concern about the environment is increasing and going global day by day in the United States, Europe l.c om and East Asia throughout the 21st century (Eurobarometer 2008; Saad 2007; Xinhua News a Lu Agency 2008 as cited in Chang, 2012) Specifically, the more the nation is covered by coastal n borders, the greater the percentage of consumers will concern about environmental issues va These nations include Thailand (93%), Indonesia (92%), Vietnam and Philippines (91%) n can be recycled or conserved (Shamdasani et al., 1993); whereby people who buy these products are called green consumers (Carrigan et al., 2004) Most people believe that th are the products minimizing the pollution or damage to our environment; and in addition, they y Green products which is termed as environmentally friendly products or eco-products te re (Nielsen Sustainability Report, 2012) environmental problems such as global warming, pollution of rivers and sea, acid rain, t to desertification, loss of biodiversity, and land degradation impact on their daily lives (Ellen, ng hi 1991; Junaedi, 2007) As a result, using eco-friendly products that minimize the negative effect ep on the environment have emerged as the best ways to behave toward the environment w Although most consumers manifest their concern about environmental problems, yet they n lo not necessarily turn these concerns into green buying behavior (Pickett-Baker and Ozaki, ad 2008) While some previous researches indicate the positive relationship between y th environmental concern and behavior (Fraj-Andres and Martinez-Salinas 2007; Mostafa 2007), ju yi numerous recent studies have supported that there is a weak concern – behavior link of pl consumer toward green products (Gupta and Ogden 2009; Tanner and Kast 2003), leading to al n ua slow green consumption That is, the rate of environmental concerns of consumer is not n va proportional to their attitude toward green products, leading to a chasm which persists between ll fu environmental concerns and purchasing green products (Chang, 2012) oi m When it comes to Vietnam, the country which according to the United Nations, is one of the top ten nations most affected by climate change and rising sea level in the world (Vietnam nh at Breaking News, 2014; Development Committee, 2008), the government is spending more z efforts in protecting the environment with main concerns about resource efficiency and z vb sustainable consumption and production In order to pave the way for fostering green ht jm consumption correlated with sustainable development, more than 300 legal documents k belonging to the environmental activities have been issued as well as establishing Vietnam gm Green Purchasing Network (VNGPN) in 2009 to guide communities, organizations on the right l.c om track in behaving toward the environment and raising the public concern (Hoang and Nguyen, 2012) In addition to the numerous green consumption campaigns held annually, investigations a Lu have been under way into purging the so-called black enterprises, which are enterprises n n va polluting the environment In 2012, an extensive investigation about 200 enterprises was construction of organizations, attracting many foreign direct investment (FDI) businesses (Talk Vietnam, 2014) According Hoang and Nguyen (2012), consumers in countries facing high th field of the environmental protection Green enterprises, consequently, have become a target y down (Vietnam News, 2013) This manifests the considerable effort of the government in the te re conducted to detect 67 firms violating the environmental laws while eight of them were shut 63 General Statistics Office of Vietnam (2009) Population and housing census 2009: Age and sex t to ng structure and marriage status of Vietnamese population Ministry of Planning & hi ep Investment (in Vietnamese) Jay w Premier Weatherill (2015) News Release Retrieved from n lo http://www.premier.sa.gov.au/images/news_releases/2015/15_04Apr/climatecompact.pd ad ju y th f yi Priester, J R., & Petty, R E (1996) The gradual threshold model of ambivalence: Relating the pl ua al positive and negative bases of attitudes to subjective ambivalence Journal of n personality and social psychology, 71(3), 431 n va ll fu Sääksjärvi, M., & Morel, K P (2010) The development of a scale to measure consumer doubt oi m toward new products European Journal of Innovation Management, 13(3), 272-293 nh Schiavone, F (2012) Resistance to industry technological change in communities of practice: at z The “ambivalent” case of radio amateurs Journal of Organizational Change z Measures of cognitive structure Multivariate k l.c gm behavioral research, 1(3), 391–395 jm Brief Report: ht Scott, William A (1966) vb Management, 25(6), 784-797 om Scott, William A (1968) Attitude measurement In Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson n a Lu (Eds)., Handbook of social psychology (2), MA: Addison-Wesley, 204–273 n va Self, R M., Self, D R., & Bell-Haynes, J (2010) Marketing tourism in the Galapagos Islands: y th 9(6), 111–125 te re Ecotourism or greenwashing? International Business & Economics Research Journal, 64 Shamdasani, P., Chon-Lin, G O., & Richmond, D (1993) Exploring green consumers in an t to ng oriental culture: Role of personal and marketing mix factors .Advances in consumer hi ep research, 20(1), 488-493 w Singh, S., Kristensen, L., & Villasenor, E (2009) Overcoming skepticism towards cause n lo related claims: The case of Norway International Marketing Review, 312-326 ad ju y th Soutar, G.N and Sweeney, J.C (2003) Are there cognitive dissonance segments? Australian yi Journal of Management, 28(3), 227-249 pl ua al Sparks, P., Hedderley, D., & Shepherd, R (1992) An investigation into the relationship n between perceived control, attitude variability and the consumption of two common n va ll fu foods European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 55-71 oi m Sweeney, J C., Soutar, G N., & Johnson, L W (1999) The role of perceived risk in the nh quality-value relationship: A study in a retail environment Journal of retailing, 75(1), at “Green enterprises” targeted Retrieved from jm ht (2014) vb Vietnam, z Talk z 77-105 k http://www.talkvietnam.com/2014/09/green-enterprises-targeted/ gm Tanner, C., & Kast, S W (2003) Promoting sustainable consumption: Determinants of green l.c om purchases by Swiss consumers Psychology and Marketing, 20(10), 883–902 a Lu Telci, E E., Maden, C., & Kantur, D (2011) The theory of cognitive dissonance: A marketing n n va and management perspective Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 24, 378-386 y th Marketing Inc te re TerraChoice (2009) The sins of greenwashing Ottawa, ON: TerraChoice Environmental 65 The United Nations Environment Programme (2015) Retrieved from t to ng http://unep.org/newscentre/Default.aspx?DocumentID=26802&ArticleID=34949&l=en# hi ep sthash.Iz0I62gK.dpuf w Thompson, M M., & Zanna, M P (1995) The conflicted individual: Personality‐based and n specific lo domain ad antecedents of ambivalent social attitudes Journal of ju y th personality, 63(2), 259-288 yi Turnbull, P W., Leek, S., & Ying, G (2000) Customer confusion: The mobile phone market pl ua al Journal of Marketing Management, 16, 143–163 n Vietnam Breaking News, (2014) Green Consumption Campaign attracts millions of attendees n va ll fu Retrieved from: http://www.vietnambreakingnews.com/2014/07/green-consumption- oi m campaign-attracts-millions-of-attendees/ News, (2013) Campaign nh Vietnam promotes green technology Retrieved from: at z z http://vietnamnews.vn/environment/235281/campaign-promotes-green-technology.html vb jm ht Vu, Dung A., Nguyen, Anh T.N & Nguyen, Huyen T (2013) Building a survey tool to assess k consumers’ perception and behavior towards green consumption VNU Journal of l.c gm Economics and Business, 29(2), 142-150 om Warlop, Luk, Ratneshwar, S and van Osselaer, Stijn M.J (2005) Distinctive brand cues and a Lu memory for product consumption experiences International Journal of Research in n n va Marketing, 22(1), 27-44 th Business Research, 64(11), 1201-1206 y barriers and resistance to sustainable solutions in the automotive sector Journal of te re Wiedmann, K P., Hennigs, N., Pankalla, L., Kassubek, M., & Seegebarth, B (2011) Adoption APPENDICES t to Appendix A: Questionnaire in English version ng hi SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE TO BEHAVIORAL INTENTION TOWARD GREEN PRODUCTS ep Dear Madam/Sir, My name is Truong Duong Tam, a student of Master Program of International School of Business, University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City I am undertaking a research to investigate the behavioural intention of consumers towards purchasing green products in Vietnam I kindly hope you may give 10 minutes to help me finish this survey I would like to express my gratefulness to your help and I hereby declare that all information collected is used for the academic purposes and the data would be handled anonymous and strictly confidential w n lo ad y th PART 1: GENERAL INFORMATION ju This section helps you to be clearer about green products by exploring your knowledge about green products Have you heard or used these green products below? Green product which is termed as environmentally friendly products or eco-products are the products minimizing the pollution or damage to our environment in manufacturing process and its lifecycle; and in addition, they can be recycled or conserved yi pl n ua al Have heard Never heard ll fu Organic food (organic vegetables/rice…) Have used n va Product oi m Electricity saving equipment (compact fluorescent lamp, LED lamp…) at nh Green energy machine (solar water heater, solar laptop/mobile charger …) z z Hybrid vehicle (electric bike, hybrid car…) vb jm ht Recyclable product (recycle nylon bag, recycled glass) k Energy efficient appliances (refrigerator, television, air conditioner… which save electricity) gm l.c If you selected “Never heard”, please stop your survey from her Thank you for your support om PART 2: The next section explores your perception, attitude and behavioral intention toward green products Please carefully read each of following statement about green products and indicate your answer using the following 7-point scale where: Mostly agree Entirely agree y te re Neither Somewhat agree nor agree disagree n Somewhat disagree va Mostly disagree n Entirely disagree a Lu th Entirely disagree STATEMENT t to ng hi Most of the green claims mislead with word in its environmental practices Most of the green claims mislead with visuals or graphics in its environmental features Most of the green claims possess a green claim that is vague or seemingly un-provable Most of the green claims overstate or exaggerate how its green functionality actually is Most of the green claims leave out or masks important information, making the green claim sound better than it is ep w 1 1 2 2 3 3 → Entirely agree 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 n 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16 There is a chance that there will be something wrong with environmental performance of environmentally friendly products 17 There is a chance that environmentally friendly products will not work properly with respect to its environmental design 18 There is a chance that I will get penalty of using the green products 19 There is a chance that using environmentally friendly products will negatively affect the environment 20 Using environmentally friendly products would damage my green reputation or image 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ht 21 I have strong mixed emotions both for and against green products 22 I find myself feeling torn between the positive and negative sides of green products 23 I feel conflict when thinking about green products 24 I feel indecisive about green products 25 I feel ambivalent toward green products l.c 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 1 2 a Lu 3 4 5 6 7 n lo 1 ad Most environmental claims made on package labels or in advertising are true Environmental claims are exaggerated; consumers would be better off if such claims on package labels or in advertising were eliminated Most environmental claims on package labels or in advertising are intended to mislead rather than to inform consumers I not believe most environmental claims made on package labels or in advertising 10 It is difficult to detect the products in terms of environmental features ju y th yi pl ua al n 11 It is difficult to recognize the differences among environmental feature claimed products 12 I confuse to decide which green products should be purchased 13 It is difficult to choose which green products should be purchase 14 I rarely feel sufficiently informed about environmental features 15 I feel uncertain about environmental features n va ll fu oi m at nh z z vb k jm gm om 26 In sum, a possible purchase of a green product would cause problems that I don't need 27 I would be making a mistake by purchasing a green product 28 In the near future, the purchase would be connected with too many uncertainties n va y te re th t to ng PART 3: OTHER INFORMATION hi ep This section refers to background of biographical information The information will allow the researcher to classify and compare groups of respondents w � Female n Gender: � Male lo ad � 15-29 � 30-44 � 45-59 � 60 and above ju y th Age group: yi �High school/Vocational degree pl Education level: � Grammar school al �Bachelor degree �Postgraduate n ua �College va Income per month (million VND/month) n � 15-30 � 30-50 ll � above 50 oi m � 5-15 fu �50 triệu yi pl ua al Nghề nghiệp anh/ chị là: n � Học sinh/ sinh viên � Nhân viên văn phòng � Nội trợ � Khác……………………………………… n � Bác sĩ va � Doanh nhân � Giáo viên ll fu oi m XIN CHÂN THÀNH CẢM ƠN ANH CHỊ ĐÃ HOÀN THÀNH BẢN KHẢO SÁT at nh z z k jm ht vb om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re th Appendix C: List of in-depth interview participants t to hi ep Age Gender Le Thanh Tam 36 Male Nguyen Ngoc Tram Anh 21 Female University student Huynh Bao Quyen 40 Female Director Dang Nhat Minh 45 Male Businessman Phan Thi Nhung 62 Female Homemaker Dao Hong Quan 66 Male Retired man yi ng No Nguyen Hoang Phuong 16 Male High school student Bui Thi Thu Thao 53 Female w n Name lo ad Job title Sales Executive ju y th pl ua al HR Manager n Appendix D: In-depth Interview’ refinement measurement scale n va ll Final measurement scales Comments oi m Original measurement scales fu Respondent’s information nh at Green consumer confusion z z ht vb Thật khó để phát sản phẩm có tính liên quan đến mơi trường (GCC1) Mrs Nhung said the sentence was not smoothly She wanted to change the sentence Le Thanh Tam, 36 years old, male Thật khó để nhận khác biệt sản phẩm tun bố có tính liên quan đến môi trường (GCC3) Interviewee recommended obmitting “được tun bố có tính liên quan” It should be replaced by “có đặc tính” and moved the object to the head Các tính mặt mơi trường sản phẩm thường khó phát k jm Phan Thi Nhung , 62 years old, female om l.c gm n a Lu n va Giữa sản phẩm có đặc tính thân thiện với mơi trường thường khó phân biệt y te re th t to Respondent’s information Original measurement scales Final measurement scales Comments ng hi Perceived consumer skepticism ep Sẽ tốt cho người tiêu dung tuyên bố môi trường thường phóng đại nhãn bao bì hay mẫu quảng cáo bị gỡ bỏ (PCS2) Dang Nhat Minh, 45 years old, male Tôi không tin hầu hết tuyên bố mơi trường nhãn bao bì hay mẫu quảng cáo (PCS4) Nguyen Ngoc Tram Anh , 21 years old, female Dang Nhat Minh, 45 years old, male w n lo ad ju y th yi pl n ua al Các tuyên bố môi trường thường phóng đại nhãn bao bì hay mẫu quảng cáo, tốt chúng bị xóa bỏ Interviewees said that it’s a subjective opinion They suggested that “Tôi không tin” should be replaced by “không đáng tin cậy” Hầu hết tuyên bố môi trường nhãn bao bì hay mẫu quảng cáo không đáng tin cậy n va Interviewee recommended that “sẽ tốt cho người tiêu dùng” should be changed into “cho nên tốt hơn” The sentence would be easier to understand ll fu Green perceived risk Các sản phẩm thân thiện với mơi trường bị lỗi tính liên quan đến mơi trường (GPR2) Mrs Thao recommended the sentence should be changed Dao Hong Quan, 66 years old, male Tôi bị phạt sử dụng sản phẩm xanh (GPR3) Participant said that “trả giá” is more accurate than “bị phạt” oi m Bui Thi Thu Thao, 53 years old, female at nh z z Có thể tơi phải trả giá cho việc sử dụng sản phẩm xanh k jm ht vb Resistance to change Các tính liên quan đến mơi trường sản phẩm xanh bị lỗi a Lu Trong tương lai gần, việc mua sắm chứa đựng nhiều rủi ro, bất trắc n n va y te re She said that the purchase Trong tương lai gần, việc would be “chứa đựng” but mua sắm kéo theo nhiều “kéo theo” many điều bất trắc (RTC3) uncertainties om Huynh Bao Quyen , 40 years old, female Le Thanh Tam, 36 years old, male l.c Tơi phạm sai lầm việc mua sản phẩm xanh (RTC2) gm The sentence is too strong Purchasing a green Tôi nghĩ việc mua sản product was a mistake We phẩm xanh sai could make mistake when lầm by purchasing it Nguyen Hoang Phuong, 16 years old, male th Appendix E: Observation distribution test t to ng Std Deviation Mean hi Items Skewness Kurtosis Statistic Std.Error Statistic Std.Error 4.187 1.610 -0.288 0.138 -0.434 0.276 4.142 1.595 -0.070 0.138 -0.677 0.276 4.242 1.706 -0.098 0.138 -0.886 0.276 4.629 1.623 -0.441 0.138 -0.519 0.276 GW5 4.806 1.745 -0.580 0.138 -0.628 0.276 PCS1 4.039 1.580 -0.064 0.138 -0.636 0.276 PCS2 4.129 -0.113 0.138 -0.827 0.276 PCS3 3.990 1.513 -0.221 0.138 -0.593 0.276 PCS4 3.994 1.543 -0.111 0.138 -0.600 0.276 GCC1 4.494 1.631 -0.430 0.138 -0.590 0.276 GCC2 4.568 1.577 0.138 -0.461 0.276 GCC3 4.642 1.691 -0.441 0.138 -0.593 0.276 GCC4 4.674 1.695 -0.535 0.138 -0.492 0.276 GCC5 4.532 1.702 -0.402 -0.726 0.276 GCC6 4.326 1.720 -0.184 0.138 -0.824 0.276 GPR1 4.723 1.539 -0.529 0.138 -0.230 0.276 GPR2 4.616 1.638 -0.328 0.138 GPR3 3.816 1.649 0.096 0.138 GPR4 3.535 1.692 0.221 0.138 -0.812 0.276 GPR5 3.065 1.774 0.570 0.138 -0.595 0.276 RTC1 3.990 1.606 -0.112 0.138 -0.631 RTC2 3.039 1.670 0.656 0.138 -0.268 0.276 RTC3 3.981 1.795 -0.103 0.138 -0.968 0.276 ABVA1 4.042 1.577 -0.174 0.138 -0.409 ABVA2 4.142 1.591 -0.351 0.138 -0.491 0.276 0.276 ABVA3 4.106 1.666 -0.246 0.138 -0.637 0.276 ABVA4 3.913 1.585 -0.091 0.138 -0.643 0.276 ABVA5 4.119 1.612 -0.167 0.138 -0.575 0.276 Statistic om ep Statistic GW1 w n GW2 ad ju y th GW4 lo GW3 yi pl n ua al 1.665 n va fu ll -0.470 oi m at nh 0.138 z z ht vb 0.276 -0.692 0.276 k jm -0.717 l.c gm 0.276 n a Lu n va y te re th 10 Appendix F: Standardized Regression Weights (Final measurement model) t to ng hi ep w n lo ad ju y th yi pl n ua al va fu oi m at nh z z k jm ht vb GW GW GW GW GW PCS PCS PCS PCS GCC GCC GCC GCC GCC GPR GPR GPR ABVA ABVA ABVA ABVA ABVA RTC RTC RTC ll                          n GW1 GW2 GW3 GW4 GW5 PCS1 PCS2 PCS3 PCS4 GCC1 GCC2 GCC3 GCC4 GCC5 GPR3 GPR4 GPR5 ABVA1 ABVA2 ABVA3 ABVA4 ABVA5 RTC1 RTC2 RTC3 Estimate 0.581 0.644 0.745 0.732 0.771 0.746 0.733 0.799 0.803 0.682 0.738 0.877 0.880 0.706 0.690 0.889 0.726 0.757 0.813 0.827 0.716 0.755 0.516 0.637 0.681 om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re th 11 Appendix G: Bootstrap Distribution t to ng hi ep 567.106 598.678 630.251 661.823 693.395 724.967 756.539 788.111 819.683 851.255 882.828 914.400 945.972 977.544 1009.116 w n lo | -|* |* |**** |******* |************ |***************** |******************** |*************** |*********** |******** |***** |*** |* |* |* | | -|* |* |****** |*************** |******************** |****************** |************ |******* |**** |** |* |* |* |* |* | ad 486.112 498.920 511.728 524.536 537.344 550.152 562.960 575.768 588.576 601.384 614.192 627.000 639.808 652.616 665.424 ju y th yi pl n ua al n va ML discrepancy (implied vs sample) ll fu ML discrepancy (implied vs pop) ( m N = 2000 S e = 516 z vb | -|* |* |*** |******* |*************** |******************** |***************** |************ |******** |*** |** |* |* | |* | k jm ht S e = 1.602 th S e = 5.884 y Mean = 211.701 te re Mean = 209.827 n N = 2000 va N = 2000 n K-L overoptimism (stabilized) a Lu K-L overoptimism (unstabilized) om l.c gm -12.899 27.695 68.290 108.884 149.479 190.073 230.668 271.262 311.856 352.451 393.045 433.640 474.234 514.829 555.423 z | -|* |** |**** |****** |************ |****************** |******************** |******************* |*************** |********** |****** |*** |** |* |* | Mean = 546.684 at nh S e = 1.591 -541.333 -423.622 -305.911 -188.201 -70.490 47.221 164.932 282.643 400.354 518.064 635.775 753.486 871.197 988.908 1106.618 N = 2000 oi Mean = 762.289 12 t to ng hi ep w n lo ad ju y th yi pl n ua al n va ll fu oi m at nh z z k jm ht vb om l.c gm n a Lu n va y te re th