Ebook Electronic principles: Part 2

chapter 14 Frequency Effects Earlier chapters discussed amplifiers operating in their normal frequency range Now, we want to discuss how an amplifier responds when the input frequency is outside this normal range With ac amplifiers, the voltage gain decreases when the input frequency is too low or too high On the other hand, dc amplifiers have voltage gain all the way down to zero frequency It is only at higher frequencies that the voltage gain of a dc amplifier falls off We can use decibels to describe the decrease in voltage gain and a Bode plot to graph the © Digital Vision response of an amplifier 568 Objectives bchob_ha After studying this chapter, you should be able to: ■ ■ bchop_haa Chapter Outline 14-1 14-2 Frequency Response of an Amplifier bchop_ln Decibel Power Gain 14-3 Decibel Voltage Gain 14-4 Impedance Matching 14-5 Decibels above a Reference 14-6 Bode Plots 14-7 More Bode Plots 14-8 The Miller Effect 14-9 Risetime-Bandwidth Relationship 14-10 Frequency Analysis of BJT Stages 14-11 Frequency Analysis of FET Stages 14-12 Frequency Effects of Surface-Mount Circuits Calculate decibel power gain and decibel voltage gain and state the implications of the impedance-matched condition Sketch Bode plots for both magnitude and phase ■ Use Miller’s theorem to calculate the equivalent input and output capacitances in a given circuit ■ Describe the risetime-bandwidth relationship Explain how coupling capacitors and emitter-bypass capacitors produce the low-cutoff frequencies in BJT stages Explain how the collector or drain-bypass capacitors and the input Miller capacitance produce the high-cutoff frequencies in BJT and FET stages ■ ■ Vocabulary Bode plot cutoff frequencies dc amplifier decibel power gain decibels decibel voltage gain dominant capacitor feedback capacitor frequency response half-power frequencies internal capacitances inverting amplifier lag circuit logarithmic scale midband of an amplifier Miller effect risetime TR stray-wiring capacitance unity-gain frequency 569 14-1 Frequency Response of an Amplifier GOOD TO KNOW The frequency response of an amplifier can be determined experimentally by applying a square-wave signal to the ampli- The frequency response of an amplifier is the graph of its gain versus the frequency In this section, we will discuss the frequency response of ac and dc amplifiers Earlier, we discussed a CE amplifier with coupling and bypass capacitors This is an example of an ac amplifier, one designed to amplify ac signals It is also possible to design a dc amplifier, one that can amplify dc signals as well as ac signals Response of an AC Amplifier fier input and noting the output response As you recall from earlier studies, a square wave contains a fundamental frequency and an infinite number of odd-order harmonics The shape of the output square wave will reveal whether the low and high frequencies are being properly amplified The frequency of the square wave should be approximately one-tenth the frequency of the upper cutoff frequency of the amplifier If the output square wave is an exact replica of the input square wave, the frequency response of the Figure 14-1a shows the frequency response of an ac amplifier In the middle range of frequencies, the voltage gain is maximum This middle range of frequencies is where the amplifier is normally operated At low frequencies, the voltage gain decreases because the coupling and bypass capacitors no longer act like short circuits Instead, their capacitive reactances are large enough to drop some of the ac signal voltage The result is a loss of voltage gain as we approach zero hertz (0 Hz) At high frequencies, the voltage gain decreases for other reasons To begin with, a transistor has internal capacitances across its junctions, as shown in Fig 14-1b These capacitances provide bypass paths for the ac signal As the frequency increases, the capacitive reactances become low enough to prevent normal transistor action The result is a loss of voltage gain Stray-wiring capacitance is another reason for a loss of voltage gain at high frequencies Figure 14-1c illustrates the idea Any connecting wire in a transistor circuit acts like one plate of a capacitor, and the chassis ground acts like the other plate The stray-wiring capacitance that exists between this wire and ground is unwanted At higher frequencies, its low capacitive reactance prevents the ac current from reaching the load resistor This is equivalent to saying that the voltage gain drops off amplifier is obviously sufficient for the applied frequency Figure 14-1 (a) Frequency response of ac amplifier; (b) internal capacitance of transistor; (c) connecting wire forms capacitance with chassis Av Av (mid) 0.707Av (mid) f f1 10f1 0.1f2 f2 (a) WIRE C´c STRAY-WIRING CAPACITANCE C´e CHASSIS GROUND (b) 570 (c) Chapter 14 Cutoff Frequencies The frequencies at which the voltage gain equals 0.707 of its maximum value are called the cutoff frequencies In Fig 14-1a, f1 is the lower cutoff frequency and f2 is the upper cutoff frequency The cutoff frequencies are also referred to as the half-power frequencies because the load power is half of its maximum value at these frequencies Why is the output power half of maximum at the cutoff frequencies? When the voltage gain is 0.707 of the maximum value, the output voltage is 0.707 of the maximum value Recall that power equals the square of voltage divided by resistance When you square 0.707, you get 0.5 This is why the load power is half of its maximum value at the cutoff frequencies Midband We will define the midband of an amplifier as the band of frequencies between 10f1 and 0.1f2 In the midband, the voltage gain of the amplifier is approximately maximum, designated by Av(mid) Three important characteristics of any ac amplifier are its Av(mid), f1, and f2 Given these values, we know how much voltage gain there is in the midband and where the voltage gain is down to 0.707Av(mid) Outside the Midband Although an amplifier normally operates in the midband, there are times when we want to know what the voltage gain is outside of the midband Here is an approximation for calculating the voltage gain of an ac amplifier: Av(mid) Av _ — — Ï1 (f1/f)2 Ï1 (f/f2)2 (14-1) Given Av(mid), f1, and f2, we can calculate the voltage gain at any frequency f This equation assumes that one dominant capacitor is producing the lower cutoff frequency and one dominant capacitor is producing the upper cutoff frequency A dominant capacitor is one that is more important than all others in determining the cutoff frequency Equation (14-1) is not as formidable as it first appears There are only three frequency ranges to analyze: the midband, below midband, and above midband In the midband, f1/f < and f /f2 < Therefore, both radicals in Eq (14-1) are approximately 1, and Eq (14-1) simplifies to: Midband: Av Av(mid) (14-2) Below the midband, f/f2 < As a result, the second radical equals and Eq (14-1) simplifies to: Av(mid) Below midband: Av — Ï1 (f1/f)2 GOOD TO KNOW In Fig 14-2, the bandwidth includes the frequencies from Hz up to f2 To say it another way, the bandwidth in Fig 14-2 equals f Frequency Effects (14-3) Above midband, f1/f < As a result, the first radical equals and Eq (14-1) simplifies to: Av(mid) Above midband: Av — Ï1 (f/f2)2 (14-4) Response of a DC Amplifier When required a designer can use direct coupling between amplifier stages This allows the circuit to amplify all the way down to zero hertz (0 Hz) This type of amplifier is called a dc amplifier 571 Figure 14-2 Frequency response of dc amplifier Av Av (mid) 0.707 Av (mid) f f2 (a) 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 Av Av (mid) 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 f/f2 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 (b) Figure 14-2a shows the frequency response of a dc amplifier Since there is no lower cutoff frequency, the two important characteristics of a dc amplifier are Av(mid) and f2 Given these two values on a data sheet, we have the voltage gain of the amplifier in the midband and its upper cutoff frequency The dc amplifier is more widely used than the ac amplifier because most amplifiers are now being designed with op amps instead of with discrete transistors An op amp is a dc amplifier that has high voltage gain, high input impedance, and low output impedance A wide variety of op amps are commercially available as integrated circuits (ICs) Most dc amplifiers are designed with one dominant capacitance that produces the cutoff frequency f2 Because of this, we can use the following formula to calculate the voltage gain of typical dc amplifiers: Av(mid) Av — Ï (f/f2)2 (14-5) For instance, when f 0.1f2: Av(mid) Av — 0.995 Av(mid) Ï (0.1)2 This says that the voltage gain is within a half percent of maximum when the input frequency is one-tenth of the upper cutoff frequency In other words, the voltage gain is approximately 100 percent of maximum 572 Chapter 14 Summary Table 14-1 Between Midband and Cutoff f/f2 AvyAv(mid) Percent (approx.) 0.1 0.995 100 0.2 0.981 98 0.3 0.958 96 0.4 0.928 93 0.5 0.894 89 0.6 0.857 86 0.7 0.819 82 0.8 0.781 78 0.9 0.743 74 0.707 70 Between Midband and Cutoff With Eq (14-5), we can calculate the voltage gain in the region between midband and cutoff Summary Table 14-1 shows the normalized values of frequency and voltage gain When f /f2 0.1, A v/Av(mid) 0.995 When f/f2 increases, the normalized voltage gain decreases until it reaches 0.707 at the cutoff frequency As an approximation, we can say that the voltage gain is 100 percent of maximum when f/f2 0.1 Then, it decreases to 98 percent, 96 percent, and so on, until it is approximately 70 percent at the cutoff frequency Figure 14-2b shows the graph of A v/Av(mid) versus f/f2 Example 14-1 Figure 14-3a shows an ac amplifier with a midband voltage gain of 200 If the cutoff frequencies are f1 20 Hz and f2 20 kHz, what does the frequency response look like? What is the voltage gain if the input frequency is Hz? If it is 200 kHz? SOLUTION In the midband, the voltage gain is 200 At either cutoff frequency, it equals: Av 0.707(200) 141 Figure 14-3b shows the frequency response With Eq (14-3), we can calculate the voltage gain for an input frequency of Hz: 200 200 200 _ Av — — — 48.5 2 Ï 17 Ï1 (20/5) Ï1 (4) Frequency Effects 573 Figure 14-3 AC amplifier and its frequency response vin AC AMPLIFIER Av (mid) = 200 vout (a) Av 200 141 f 20 Hz 20 kHz (b) In a similar way, we can use Eq (14-4) to calculate the voltage gain for an input frequency of 200 kHz: 200 Av —— 19.9 Ï1 (200/20)2 PRACTICE PROBLEM 14-1 Repeat Example 14-1 using an ac amplifier with a midband voltage gain of 100 Example 14-2 Figure 14-4a shows a 741C, an op amp with a midband voltage gain of 100,000 If f2 10 Hz, what does the frequency response look like? SOLUTION At the cutoff frequency of 10 Hz, the voltage gain is 0.707 of its midband value: Av 0.707(100,000) 70,700 Figure 14-4b shows the frequency response Notice that the voltage gain is 100,000 at a frequency of zero hertz (0 Hz) As the input frequency approaches Figure 14-4 The 741C and its frequency response Av 100,000 70,700 vin 741C Av (mid) = 100,000 vout f 10 Hz (a) 574 (b) Chapter 14 10 Hz, the voltage gain decreases until it equals approximately 70  percent of maximum PRACTICE PROBLEM 14-2 Repeat Example 14-2 with Av(mid) 200,000 Example 14-3 In the preceding example, what is the voltage gain for each of the following input frequencies: 100 Hz, kHz, 10 kHz, 100 kHz, and MHz? SOLUTION Since the cutoff frequency is 10 Hz, an input frequency of: f 100 Hz, kHz, 10 kHz, . .  gives a ratio f/f2 of: f/f2 10, 100, 1000, . .  Therefore, we can use Eq (14-5) as follows to calculate the voltage gains: 100,000 f 100 Hz: Av — < 10,000 Ï1 (10)2 100,000 f kHz: Av _ — 1000 Ï1 (100)2 100,000 f 10 kHz: Av _ —— 100 Ï (1,000)2 100,000 f 100 kHz: Av —— 10 Ï1 (10,000)2 100,000 f MHz: Av _ —— 1 Ï (100,000)2 Each time the frequency increases by a decade (a factor of 10), the voltage gain decreases by a factor of 10 PRACTICE PROBLEM 14-3 Repeat Example 14-3 with Av(mid) 200,000 14-2 Decibel Power Gain We are about to discuss decibels, a useful method for describing frequency response But before we do, we need to review some ideas from basic mathematics Review of Logarithms Suppose we are given this equation: x 10y (14-6) It can be solved for y in terms of x to get: y log10 x Frequency Effects 575 This says that y is the logarithm (or exponent) of 10 that gives x Usually, the 10 is omitted, and the equation is written as: y log x (14-7) With a calculator that has the common log function, you can quickly find the y value for any x value For instance, here is how to calculate the value of y for x 10, 100, and 1000: y log 10 y log 100 y log 1000 As you can see, each time x increases by a factor of 10, y increases by 1 You can also calculate y values, given decimal values of x For instance, here are the values of y for x 0.1, 0.01, and 0.001: y log 0.1 21 y log 0.01 22 y log 0.001 23 Each time x decreases by a factor of 10, y decreases by 1 Definition of Ap(dB) In a previous chapter, power gain Ap was defined as the output power divided by the input power: pout Ap _ pin Decibel power gain is defined as: Ap(dB) 10 log Ap (14-8) Since Ap is the ratio of output power to input power, Ap has no units or dimensions When you take the logarithm of Ap, you get a quantity that has no units or dimensions But to make sure that Ap(dB) is never confused with Ap, we attach the unit decibel (abbreviated dB) to all answers for Ap(dB) For instance, if an amplifier has a power gain of 100, it has a decibel power gain of: Ap(dB) 10 log 100 20 dB As another example, if Ap 100,000,000, then: Ap(dB) 10 log 100,000,000 80 dB In both of these examples, the log equals the number of zeros: 100 has two zeros, and 100,000,000 has eight zeros You can use the zero count to find the logarithm whenever the number is a multiple of 10 Then, you can multiply by 10 to get the decibel answer For instance, a power gain of 1000 has three zeros; multiply by 10 to get 30 dB A power gain of 100,000 has five zeros; multiply by 10 to get 50 dB This shortcut is useful for finding decibel equivalents and checking answers Decibel power gain is often used on data sheets to specify the power gain of devices One reason for using decibel power gain is that logarithms compress numbers For instance, if an amplifier has a power gain that varies from 100 to 100,000,000, the decibel power gain varies from 20 to 80 dB As you can see, decibel power gain is a more compact notation than ordinary power gain 576 Chapter 14 Summary Table 14-2 Properties of Power Gain Factor Decibel, dB 32 13 30.5 23 310 110 30.1 210 Two Useful Properties Decibel power gain has two useful properties: Each time the ordinary power gain increases (decreases) by a factor of 2, the decibel power gain increases (decreases) by dB Each time the ordinary power gain increases (decreases) by a factor of 10, the decibel power gain increases (decreases) by 10 dB Summary Table 14-2 shows these properties in compact form The following examples will demonstrate these properties Example 14-4 Calculate the decibel power gain for the following values: Ap 1, 2, 4, and 8 SOLUTION With a calculator, we get the following answers: Ap(dB) 10 log dB Ap(dB) 10 log dB Ap(dB) 10 log dB Ap(dB) 10 log dB Each time Ap increases by a factor of 2, the decibel power gain increases by dB This property is always true Whenever you double the power gain, the decibel power gain increases by dB PRACTICE PROBLEM 14-4 Find Ap(dB) for power gains of 10, 20, and 40 Example 14-5 Calculate the decibel power gain for each of these values: Ap 1, 0.5, 0.25, and 0.125 SOLUTION Ap(dB) 10 log dB Ap(dB) 10 log 0.5 23 dB Frequency Effects 577 Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an 14-15 41 dB, 23 dB, 18 dB 14-17 100 mW 14-19 14 dBm, 19.7 dBm, 36.9 dBm 14-21 14-23 See Figure 14-25 See Figure 14-27 See Figure 14-29 See Figure 14-31 1.4 MHz 14-33 119 Hz 14-35 284 Hz 14-37 pF, 25 pF, 15 pF 14-39 gate: 30.3 MHz; drain: 8.61 MHz 14-41 40 dB 14-43 0.44 ms 14-45 RG changed to 500 V 14-47 Cin is 0.1 mF instead of mF 14-49 VCC at 15 V, not 10 V CHAPTER 15 CHAPTER 16 15-1 55.6 mA, 27.8 mA, 10 V 15-3 60 mA, 30 mA, V (right), 12 V (left) 15-5 518 mV, 125 kV 15-7 2207 mV, 125 kV 15-9 V, 1.75 V 15-11 286 mV, 2.5 mV 15-13 45.4 dB 15-15 237 mV 15-17 Output will be high; needs a current path to ground for both bases 15-19 C 15-21 V 15-23 MV 15-25 10.7 V, 187 15-27 Q1 open C-E 15-29 VCC at 25 V, not 15 V 15-31 Q2 open C-E 16-1 16-3 16-5 16-7 16-9 16-11 16-13 16-15 16-17 16-19 16-21 16-23 16-25 16-27 16-29 16-31 16-33 170 mV 19,900, 2000, 200 1.59 MHz 10, MHz, 250 mVp-p, 49 mVp-p; See Figure 40 mV 42 mV 50 mVp-p, MHz to 51, 392 kHz to 20 MHz 188 mV/ms, 376 mV/ms 38 dB, 21 V, 1000 214, 82, 177 41, 1, MHz, 1, 500 kHz Go to positive or negative saturation 2.55 Vp-p Rf is kV, not 18 kV R1 is 4.7 kV, not 470 V Figure Figure AV (dB) AV (dB) 15.9 kHz dB f 20 dB/DECADE 52 dB 32 dB 12 dB 106 kHz 1.06 MHz 10.6 MHz Figure Figure AV (dB) AV (dB) 108 dB 104 dB 88 dB 84 dB 68 dB 64 dB 48 dB 44 dB 28 dB 24 dB dB dB 42 Hz 420 Hz 4.2 kHz 42 kHz 420 kHz 4.2 MHz 11 Hz 110 Hz 1.1 kHz 11 kHz 110 kHz 1.1 MHz Answers 1086 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an 16-35 Op amp has failed 16-37 Push-pull Class-B/AB power amp 16-39 10 CHAPTER 17 17-1 0.038, 26.32, 0.10 percent, 26.29 17-3 0.065, 15.47 17-5 470 MV 17-7 0.0038 percent 17-9 –0.660 Vp 17-11 185 mArms, 34.2 mW 17-13 106 mArms, 11.2 mW 17-15 834 mAp-p, 174 mW 17-17 kHz 17-19 15 MHz 17-21 100 kHz, 796 mVp 17-23 V 17-25 510 mV, 30 mV, 15 mV 17-27 110 mV, 14 mV, 11 mV 17-29 200 mV 17-31 kV 17-33 0.1 V to V 17-35 T1: open between C and D; T2: shorted R2; T3: shorted R4 17-37 T7: open between A and B; T8: shorted R3; T9: R4 open 17-39 R2 is 500 V, not kV 17-41 R2 is 10 kV, not kV CHAPTER 18 18-1 18-3 18-5 18-7 18-9 2, 10 –18, 712 Hz, 38.2 kHz 42, 71.4 kHz, 79.6 Hz 510 mV 4.4 mV, 72.4 mV 18-11 18-13 18-15 18-17 18-19 18-21 18-23 18-25 18-27 18-29 18-31 18-33 18-35 18-37 18-39 18-41 18-43 18-45 18-47 18-49 18-51 18-53 18-55 0, –10 15, –15 –20, 60.004 No –200 mV, 10,000 1V 19.3 mV –3.125 V –3.98 V 24.5, 2.5 A 0.5 mA, 28 kV 0.3 mA, 40 kV 0.02, 10 –0.018, –0.99 11, f1: 4.68 Hz; f2: 4.82 Hz; f3: 32.2 Hz 102, 98 mA T4: K-B open; T5: C-D open; T6: J-A open R1 is 10 kV, not kV Rf is open Open feedback loop on U2 Adjusts the output to zero when the input is zero Av AVOL; output signal would be clipped at 12 V 19-11 19-13 19-15 19-17 19-19 19-21 19-23 19-25 19-27 19-29 19-31 19-33 19-35 19-37 19-39 CHAPTER 20 20-1 20-3 20-5 20-7 20-9 20-11 20-13 20-15 CHAPTER 19 19-1 7.36 kHz, 1.86 kHz, 0.25, wideband 19-3 a Narrowband; b narrowband; c narrowband; d narrowband 19-5 200 dB/decade, 60 dB/octave 19-7 503 Hz, 9.5 19-9 39.3 Hz Figure Av(dB) 20-17 20-19 20-21 20-23 20-25 20-27 20-29 20-31 20-33 20-35 20-37 20-39 20-41 20-43 20-45 20 dB 20 dB/DECADE 20-47 20-49 MHz f 20 MHz Answers –21.4, 10.3 kHz 3, 36.2 kHz 15 kHz, 0.707, 15 kHz 21.9 kHz, 0.707, 21.9 kHz 19.5 kHz, 12.89 kHz, 21.74 kHz, 0.8 19.6 kHz, 1.23, 18.5 kHz, 18.5 kHz, 14.8 kHz –1.04, 8.39, 16.2 kHz 1.5, 1, 15.8 Hz, 15.8 Hz 127° 24.1 kHz, 50, 482 Hz (max and min) 48.75 kHz, 51.25 kHz 60 dB, 120 dB, 200 dB 148 pF, 9.47 nF U1 has failed C3 is open 20-51 100 mV 67.5 V Zero, between 0.7 V and –9 V –4 V, 31.8 Hz 41 percent 1.5 V 0.292 V, –0.292V, 0.584 V Output voltage is low when the input voltage is between 3.5 and 4.75 V mA V, 0.1 V, 10 mV, 1.0 mV 0.782 Vp-p triangular waveform 0.5, 923 Hz 196 Hz 135 mVp-p 106 mV –106 mV V to 100 mV peak 20,000 Make the 3.3 kV resistor variable 1.1 Hz, 0.001 V 0.529 V Use different capacitors of 0.05 mF, 0.5 mF, and mF, plus an inverter Increase R1 to 3.3 kV Use a comparator with hysteresis and a light dependent resistor in a voltage divider as the input 228,780 miles 1087 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an 20-53 T3: relaxation oscillator circuit; T4: peak detector circuit; T5: positive clamper circuit 20-55 T8: peak detector circuit; T9: integrator circuit; T10: comparator circuit 20-57 D1 is shorted 20-59 U1 has failed CHAPTER 21 21-1 Vrms 21-3 a 33.2 Hz, 398 Hz; b 332 Hz, 3.98 kHz; c 3.32 kHz, 39.8 kHz; d 33.2 kHz, 398 kHz 21-5 3.98 MHz 21-7 398 Hz 21-9 1.67 MHz, 0.10, 10 21-11 1.18 MHz 21-13 7.34 MHz 21-15 0.030, 33 21-17 Frequency will increase by percent 21-19 517 ms 21-21 46.8 kHz 21-23 100 ms, 5.61 ms, 3.71 ms, 8.66 ms, 0.0371, 0.0866 21-25 10.6 V/ms, 6.67 V, 0.629 ms 21-27 Triangular waveform, 10 kHz, Vp 21-29 a decrease b increase c same d same e same 21-31 The fuzz is probably oscillations To correct this, make sure that the leads are short and are not running close to each other Also, a ferrite bead in the feedback path may dampen them out 21-33 4.46 mH 21-35 Pick a value for R1 If R1 10 kV, R2 5 kV and C 72 nF 21-37 VCC has failed 21-39 R2 is shorted 21-41 Sinewave 21-43 RV7 1.8 kV 21-45 Output of pin 11 to Q3 CHAPTER 22 22-1 3.45 percent 22-3 2.5 percent 22-5 18.75 V, 484 mA, 187.5 mA, 96.5 mA 22-7 18.46 V, 798 mA, 369 mA, 429 mA 22-9 84.5 percent 22-11 30.9 mA 22-13 50 V, 233 mA 22-15 421 mV 22-17 83.3 percent, 60 percent 22-19 3.84 A 22-21 V 22-23 14.1 V 22-25 3.22 kV 22-27 11.9 V 22-29 0.1 V 22-31 2.4 V 22-33 22.6 kHz 22-35 T1: Triangle-to-pulse converter 22-37 T3: Q1 22-39 T5: Relaxation oscillator 22-41 T7: Triangle-to-pulse converter 22-43 T9: Triangle-to-pulse converter 22-45 R4 is open 22-47 D1 is shorted 22-49 U1: to 120 V; U2: 112 V; U3: 15 V; U4: 212 V; U5: to 220 V 22-51 14-15 V 22-53 840 V Answers 1088 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an Index A ac amplifiers, 570 ac analysis, 385–388, 634–640 ac beta, 292–293 acceptor atom, 37 ac collector resistance, 306, 397–398 ac-coupled amplifier, 742–743, 744–745 ac current gain, 292–293 ac effect of dc voltage source, 299 ac emitter resistance of emitter diode, 294 formula for, 295 ac equivalent circuits of amplifiers, 299, 300–301 of CB amplifiers, 352 of CE amplifiers, 339–400 of choke-input filter, 101 of Colpitts oscillator, 913 of crystals, 921–922 of CS amplifiers, 438 for emitter follower, 335 of JFETs, 436–437 of multi-stage amplifiers, 328 of reverse-biased diode, 175 of single-ended output gain, 635 of swamped amplifier, 311 of transistors, 306 of TSEB amplifiers, 301 of tuned circuits, 177 using the T model, 306 of VDB amplifiers, 300 of vibrating crystals, 921–922 of zener diode, 151 ac ground, 287 ac load lines, 370–371, 380, 384–385 ac quantities on the data sheet, 303–305 h parameters, 303 other quantities, 303–305 relationships between r and h parameters, 303 ac resistance of emitter diode, 293–296, 293f ac short, 282, 299 active diode circuits, 881–885 active filters, 672, 788, 795 active half-wave rectifier, 881–882 active loading, 672 active-load resistors, 486, 655–656 active-load switching, 486–487 active peak detector, 882–883 active positive clamper, 884–885 active positive clippper, 883–884 active pullup stage, 861 active region, 199, 425–434 adjustable-bandwidth circuit, 743–744 adjustable gain, 750, 751 adjustable regulators, 981–982 AGC See automatic gain control (AGC) alarms, 936–937 all-pass filter, 793, 835–840 ambient temperature, 34, 46, 401 amplifiers See also differential amplifiers (diff amps); operational amplifiers (op amps) ac, 570 ac-coupled, 742–743, 744–745 analysis of, 298–302 audio, 369, 699–700 audio distribution, 745 base-biased, 282–286 biasing Class-B/AB, 389–391 buffer, 448–449 cascading CC, 342–344 cascading CE, 342–344 cascode, 453 chopper, 448 Class-AB, 386 Class-A operation, 368, 375–382 Class-B/AB, 389–391 Class-B operation, 368, 382–383 Class-B push-pull, 383, 386 Class-C operation, 368, 393–396 Class-D, 887–892 classes, 402 common-base (CB), 301, 350–353 common-collector (CC), 301, 334–338 common configurations, 354–355 common-emitter (CE), 301, 305, 309, 339–340 common-source (CS), 438 current, 725 dc, 369, 445, 448, 571–572 discrete negative feedback, 719 D-MOSFET, 474–476, 512 emitter-biased, 287–289 emitter follower as, 334 emitter-follower power, 379–382 e-MOSFET, 508–512 frequency response of, 570 IC Class-D, 890–892 ICIS, 725–726 ICVS, 721–722 instrumentation, 759–763 integrated instrumentation, 762–763 intermediate-frequency (IF), 700 inverting, 596, 680–686, 722, 778 inverting circuits, 742–744 junction field-effect transistor (JFET), 438–443 low-noise, 449 midband of, 571 multistage, 328–331 narrowband, 369 noninverting, 686–690, 778 noninverting circuits, 744–747 output impedance of, 339–342 power, 370 power formulas, 386 power gain of, 375–376 preamp, 369 radio-frequency (RF), 369, 700 small-signal, 291 summing, 691–692 summing circuits, 763–767 swamped, 311–314, 331 swamped voltage, 391 terms, 368–370 total voltage gain of, 329 transconductance, 712 transresistance, 712 troubleshooting of multistage, 355 tuned Class-C, 396–401 tuned RF, 369–370 two-stage, 328 two-stage feedback, 331–333 two-supply emitter bias (TSEB), 289, 300–301 VCIS, 723–724 video, 700 voltage-divider based (VDB), 370–371 voltage-divider-biased (VDB), 288 voltage gain for, 286 voltage regulation of, 347–350 wideband, 369 amplifier terms, 368–370 classes of operation, 368 ranges of frequency, 369 signal levels, 369–370 types of coupling, 368–369 amplifying circuit, 222, 283–285 analog circuits, 485–486, 855–856 analog multiplex, 447 analog signals, 485, 486 analog switching, 444 anode, 58, 530 anode gate, 556–557 approximate responses of filters, 793–805 approximations See also second approximations Bessel, 799–801 Butterworth, 795–796 Chebyshev, 796–797 described, elliptic, 798–799 for emitter current, 257 1089 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an approximations (continued) of filters, 795–805 higher, 204 ideal, 6–7, 203 inverse Chebyshev, 797–798 roll-off of different, 801–802 third, 7, 66 transistor, 203–204 arithmetic average, 792 Armstrong oscillator, 917–918 astable mode, 924 astable multivibrator, 926 astable operation, 926 of 555 timer, 931–935 atomic structure, 30 attenuation, 790, 794 audio AGC, 775–776 audio amplifiers, 369, 699–700 audio distribution amplifier, 745 automatic gain control (AGC), 437, 451–452, 775–777 audio, 775–776 high-level video, 776–777 low-level video, 776 avalanche diode, 146 avalanche effect, 43 averager, 765 B B/AB push-pull emitter follower, 391–393 back diodes, 179 bandpass filters bandwidth (BW) of, 791 Q of, 792 bandpass responses, 803 bands, energy, 44–46 bandstop filters, 792–793, 833–835 bandstop responses, 804 bandwidth (BW) of bandpass filters, 791 described, 601 gain bandwidth product, 683, 727 large-signal, 677 and negative feedback, 728–729 open-loop, 682 power, 677 of resonant circuit, 396–397 and slew rate distortion, 728 barrier potential, 39–40, 46, 120 base, 190 base bias, 215, 225 base-biased amplifiers, 282–286 base-biased LED driver, 245–246 base bypass circuit, 606–607 base currents, 641–642 base curve, 196–198 base electrons, 192 base-emitter open (BEO), 249 base-emitter voltage, 242 base offsets, 641 base resistors, 630 base voltage, 242, 262 basic circuit, 686–687 Bessel approximation, 799–801 Bessel filters, 820–821 Bessel responses, 814, 838 bias current-source, 432–433 other types of, 264–266 two-supply emitter, 260–264 two-supply source, 432 biased clippers, 121–122 biased transistor, 191–193 biasing in active region, 425–434 in Ohmic region, 482 in ohmic region, 422–423 biasing Class-B/AB amplifiers, 389–391 bidirectional current, 769 bidirectional load current, 769 bidirectional thyristors, 545–551 BIFET op amp, 669 bipolar junction transistor (BJT), 188, 414 current hogging, 494 stages, 602–609 bipolar transistors vs junction field-effect transistors (JFETs), 417 vs power FETs, 493–494 biquadratic and state variable filters, 840–843 biquadratic filter, 840–841 biquads, 840 bistable multivibrator, 928 BJT See bipolar junction transistor (BJT) blown-fuse indicator, 168 blown fuses, 118 Bode plots, 586–589, 590–596 Bode plotter, Multisim, 1037–1038 boost regulator, 991–992 bootstrapping, 687 bounded output, 856–857 bound electrons, 33–34 branch current, 922 breadboard, 15 breakdown, 527 breakdown operation, 145 breakdown ratings of junction field-effect transistors (JFETs), 455 of transistors, 207 breakdown region, 199 breakdown voltage, 43, 71, 419 break frequency, 588 breakover, 526–527 breakover characteristic, 528 brick wall response, 790 bridge rectifiers, 97–101 with capacitor-input filter, 111 bridge-tied load (BTL), 889 BTL (bridge-tied load), 889 buck-boost regulator, 992 buck regulator, 989–991 buffer, 343 buffer amplifiers, 448–449 buffered inputs, 756 buffering, 756 bulk resistance calculation of, 74–75 of diodes, 59–60, 66, 119 vs dc resistance, 75 Butterworth approximations, 795–796 Butterworth filters, 819–820 Butterworth responses, 808, 814, 838–839 BV (reverse breakdown voltage), 71 bypass capacitors, 287 C capacitive coupling, 368, 370 capacitor-input filters, 103–110, 992 capture range, 944 carrier, 938 cascade, 127 cascaded stages, 580 cascading CC amplifiers, 342–344 cascading CE amplifiers, 342–344 cascode amplifiers, 453 case styles, diode, 58 case temperatures, 404–405 cathode gate, 556 cathodes, 58, 530 Cauer filter, 798 CB (common base), 195 CB connection, 914–916 CB oscillator, 915 CC (common collector), 195 CC amplifier, 342–344 CE (common emitter), 195–196 CE amplifiers, 339–340 CE connection, 912–913 CE driver, 391–392 center frequency, 792 center-tapped full-wave rectifier, 99 channels, 417, 491 charge pump, 500 charge storage, 172 eliminating, 174 produces reverse current, 172–173 Chebyshev approximation, 796–797 Chebyshev filters, 821–822 Chebyshev responses, 808 chips, 654 choke-input filter, 101–103, 990 chopper, 445 chopper amplifiers, 448 circuit implementation, 813–814 clampers, 123–125 clamping diodes, 856 Clapp oscillator, 919 Class-AB, defined, 386 Class-AB amplifiers, 386 Class-AB operation, 386 Class-A operation, 368, 375–382 Class-B/AB amplifiers, 389–391 Class-B/AB driver, 391–393 Class-B operation, 368, 382–383 Class-B push-pull amplifiers, 383, 386 Class-B push-pull emitter follower, 383–388 ac analysis, 385 ac load line, 384–385 Class-AB, 386 crossover distortion, 385–386 dc load line, 384 overall action, 385 power formulas, 386 push-pull circuit, 383–384 transistor power dissipation, 386–387 Index 1090 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an Class-C formulas, 396–401 ac collector resistance, 397–398 bandwidth, 396–397 conduction angle, 398–399 current dip at resonance, 397 duty cycle, 398 stage efficiency, 399–400 transistor power dissipation, 399 Class-C operation, 368, 393–396 Class-D amplifiers, 887–892 clippers, 118–122 clipping of large signals, 372 clock, 658, 937 closed-loop input impedance, 717–718 closed-loop output impedance, 718, 1013–1014 closed-loop voltage gain, 681 closed state, 526 CMOS (complementary MOS), 489–490 CMOS (complementary MOS) inverter, 489 CMRR See common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) coherent light, 171 cold-solder joint, 20 collector, 190 collector-base diode, 190 collector-base open (CBO), 249 collector bypass circuit, 605–606 collector curves, 198–203 collector cutoff current, 200 collector diode, 190 collector electrons, 192–193 collector-emitter open (CEO), 249 collector-emitter short (CES), 249 collector-emitter voltage, 215 collector-feedback bias, 265–266 collector power, 199 collector voltage, 199, 243 collector-voltage method, 223 Colpitts crystal oscillator, 923 Colpitts oscillator, 912–917 combination clipper, 122 combined effects, 644 commercial transformers, 112–113 common-anode, 170 common base (CB), 195 common-base (CB) amplifiers, 301, 350–353 common-cathode, 170 common collector (CC), 195–196 common-collector (CC) amplifiers, 301, 334–338 common emitter (CE), 195–196 common-emitter (CE) amplifiers, 301, 305, 309 common-mode gain, 647–650 common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), 673–674, 753, 891 calculations of, 755–756 defined, 648 of external resistors, 754–755 of op amp, 754 common-mode signal, 647–648 common-source (CS) amplifiers, 438 comparators with hysteresis, 864–869 linear region of, 855 with nonzero references, 859–864 with zero reference, 852–858 compensating an op amp, 597–598 compensating capacitor, 672 compensating diodes, 389–390, 654 compensating resistors, 856 complementary Darlington, 347 complementary MOS (CMOS), 489–490 compliment of Q, 928 component level troubleshooting, 559 conduction angle, 398–399, 543 conduction band, 45 conductors, 30–31 constant bandwidth, 832 constant-current diodes, 178 constant time delay, 800 conventional full-wave rectifier, 99 converters, 712 copper atom, 30 core, 30, 31 corner frequency, 588 correction factor, 244 Coulomb’s law, coupling capacitors, 282–283, 368 covalent bonds, 33 critical rate of rise, 545 crossover distortion, 385–386 crowbar integrated, 540 SCR, 538–541 triac, 550 crystal oscillators, 919–920, 923 crystals, 32, 921 See also Silicon crystals crystal slab, 920–921 crystal stability, 922–923 current derivations of, 194 and temperature, 214 of transistors, 193–195, 214 current amplifier, 725 current boosters, 768–770, 985–986 current-controlled current source (ICIS), 712 amplifier, 725–726 current-controlled voltage source (ICVS), 712, 713 amplifier, 721–722 current dip at resonance, 397 current drain, 376 current gain ac, 292–293 changes in, 243 on data sheets, 303 h parameters, 211 minor effect of, 243–244 in saturation region, 223 of transistors, 194, 214 variations in, 214 current hogging, 494 current interruption, 534 current limiting, 453, 971–973 current-limiting resistor, 142 current mirror, 654–656 current-regulator diodes, 178 current-sensing resistor, 972 current-source bias, 432–433 current sources, 10–11 schematic symbol, 11 stiff, 11 current sourcing, 453 Index current-to-voltage converter, 712, 721–722 curve tracer, 200 cutoff frequencies, 571, 588, 590–591, 601, 795 cutoff point, 77, 217 cutoff region, 200 cutoff test, 249 D damped response, 808 damping factor, 807–808 Darlington connections, 344–347, 971 Darlington pair, 344–346 Darlington transistors, 345 data sheets, 43 ac quantities on, 303–305 for Darlington transistors, 345 described, 71 of E-MOSFETs, 480–481 for IGBT, 553–554 for junction field-effect transistors (JFETs), 455–458 manufacturers’ (online link), 1010 reading, 71–74, 114 SCRs, 532–533 of transistors, 207–212 for triacs, 547–548 of zener diodes, 156–159 dc alpha, 193 dc amplifiers, 369, 445, 448, 571–572 dc analysis of diff amps, 629–633 dc beta, 194 dc clamping of input signal, 394 dc current source, 10 dc-equivalent circuit, 298–299 dc forward current, 60 dc load lines, 370–371, 380, 384 dc load voltage, 106 dc resistance of diodes, 75 vs bulk resistance, 75 dc-to-ac converters, 494–495 dc-to-dc converters, 495, 986–988 dc value of a signal, 89 dc value of half-wave signal, 89 dc voltage source ac effect of, 299 deadband, 866 decades, 587 decibel attenuation, 794 decibel gain, 582 decibel power gain, 575–577 decibels (dBs) above reference, 584–586 3-dB frequency, 814 defined, 576 mathematics of, 575–576 power gain, 575–577 6, per octave, 592 decibel voltage gain, 579–581, 587–588, 592 basic rules for, 579 cascaded stages, 580 defined, 579 definition, delay equalizers, 839 depletion-layer isolation, 653 depletion layers, 39, 41–42 1091 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an depletion-mode devices, 477 depletion mode MOSFET (D-MOSFET) amplifiers, 474–476 depletion mode MOSFET (D-MOSFET) curves, 472–473 depletion mode MOSFETs (D-MOSFETs), 470, 472, 509 derating curve, 401, 404 derating factors, 159, 210, 401, 403 derivation, 5–6, 1011–1016 diacs, 545 differential amplifiers (diff amps) ac analysis of, 634–640 construction of, 753–759 dc analysis of, 629–633 differential-output gain of, 635–636 ideal analysis of, 629–630 input impedance of, 637 loaded, 656–658 operation and function of, 626–629 second approximation of, 630 single-ended output gain of, 635 theory of operation, 634–635 voltage gain of, 634 voltage gains for, 637 differential input, 626–627 differential-input configurations, 636–637 differential input voltage, 753–754 differential output, 626–627, 636 differential-output gain, 635–636 differential voltage gain, 754 differentiation, 885 differentiator, 885–887 diffusion, 39 digital/analog trainer system, 1066–1067 digital circuits, 225, 485–486 digital multimeter (DMM), 15, 69 digital signals, 486 digital switching, 485–489 digital-to-analog (D/A) converter, 765–767 diode bias, 389–390 diode case styles, 58 diode circuits, 58–59 bridge rectifier, 97–101 capacitor-input filter, 103–110 choke-input filter, 101–103 clampers, 123–125 clippers and limiters, 118–122 full-wave rectifier, 93–97 half-wave rectifier, 88–91 other power-supply topics, 112–116 peak inverse voltage and surge current, 110–112 transformer, 91–93 troubleshooting, 116–118 voltage multipliers, 125–128 diode clamps, 120–121, 854 diode current, 114 diodes, 38 See also specific entries back diodes, 179 breakdown voltage, 43 bulk resistance calculation, 74–75 current-regulator, 178 data sheet, 71–74 dc resistance of, 75 electronic systems, 78–79 ideal, 61–62 load lines, 76–77 PIN diodes, 181 reverse-biased, 47–48 second approximation, 64 snap, 179 step-recovery, 178–179 surface-mount, 77–78 third approximation, 66 troubleshooting of, 69–70 tunnel, 179–180 unbiased, 38 dipole, 39 dips, 177 direct coupled signal, 342, 343 direct coupling, 368–369 discrete devices, 491–492 discrete H-bridge, 504–505 discrete negative feedback amplifier, 719 discrete vs integrated circuits, 289 distortion, 290 harmonic, 718–719 less with large signals, 313 nonlinear, 718–719 reducing, 290–291 distortion analyzer, 718–719 D-MOSFET amplifiers, 474–476, 512 D-MOSFET curves, 472–473 D-MOSFETs, 470, 472, 509 dominant capacitor, 571 dominant cutoff frequency, 598, 603, 606 donor atoms, 36 donor impurities, 36 doping, 34, 36–37 doping levels, 190 double-ended limit detection, 869 double-subscript notation, 196 drain, 416 drain current, 417, 418–419, 457 drain curves, 418–420, 477 drain-feedback bias, 509 drain-feedback bias, 498 drain source on resistance, 478–479 drift, 448, 922 driver, defined, 391 dropout IC regulators, 978 dropout voltage, 978 duality principle, 17–18 duty cycle, 398 dynamic power consumption, 490 E Ebers-Moll model, 297 edge frequency, 795, 814 effect of base resistors, 630 efficiency of Class-A amplifier, 376–377 defined, 376, 377 of regulators, 965, 968–969 of series regulators, 970–971 stage, 399–400 of tuned Class-C amplifier, 393 electroluminescence, 163 electrolytic capacitors, 107 electromagnetic interference (EMI), 890, 978 electron flow, 40 electronic systems, 78–79 elliptic approximations, 798–799 EMI See electromagnetic interference (EMI) emitter, 190 emitter-base diode, 190 emitter bias, 242–245, 260–264 emitter-biased amplifier, 287–289 emitter-biased LED driver, 246 emitter bypass capacitor, 602–603 emitter current approximations, 257 emitter diodes, 190 ac emitter resistance of, 294 ac resistance of, 293–296, 293f emitter electrons, 191–192 emitter-feedback bias, 264–265, 266 emitter follower, 335 See also CC amplifier ac-equivalent circuits for, 335 as amplifiers, 334 as buffer, 343 negative feedback of, 335 output impedance of, 340 voltage gain of, 335–336 vs zener follower, 347–348 and waveforms, 334 emitter-follower power amplifiers, 379–382 emitter voltage, 243 e-MOSFET amplifiers, 508–512 E-MOSFETs See enhancement-mode MOSFETs (E-MOSFETs) energy bands, 44–46 energy gap, 48 energy levels, 43–46 energy storage, 989 enhancement-mode devices, 477 enhancement-mode MOSFETs (E-MOSFETs) data sheets, 480–481 described, 470 ohmic region of, 478–485 operation of, 476–478 schematic symbols of, 477–478 table of, 479 epicap See varactor epitaxial layer, 651 equal base resistances, 644–645 equal-ripple approximation See Chebyshev approximation equivalent series resistance (ESR), 891 error voltage, 908 ESR (equivalent series resistance), 891 exact closed-loop voltage gain, 714 exact dc load voltage, 106 external transistors, 985 extrinsic semiconductors, 36, 37–38 F faster turnoff, 494 feedback ac emitter, 335 attenuation factor, 714 collector-bias, 265–266 discrete negative, 719 drain-bias, 509 emitter-bias, 264–265, 266 emitter follower, 335 feedback capacitor, 597 feedback fraction B, 714 multiple-feedback (MFB) filter, 830 Index 1092 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an negative, 264, 335, 712–713 positive feedback, 526 two-stage, 331–333 two-stage negative, 392–393 voltage gain in, 332 feedback attenuation factor, 714 feedback capacitor, 597 converting, 597 feedback fraction B, 714 feedback resistor, 312 FET Colpitts oscillator, 916 FETs See field-effect transistors (FETs) FF (fixed frequency) mode, 892 fiber-optic cables, 171 field effect, 416 field-effect transistors (FETs), 414 See also insulated gate FETs (IGFETs); junction field-effect transistors (JFETs); metal-oxide semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs); power FETs FET Colpitts oscillator, 916 frequency analysis of stages, 609–614 high-frequency analysis of, 611–612 input to, 15 low-frequency analysis of, 609–610 filter design, 822 filtering of harmonics, 394–395 filters active, 788, 795 approximate responses of, 793–805 approximations of, 795–805 bandpass, 791–792, 829–833 bandstop, 792–793, 833–835 bandwidth of, 791 Bessel, 820–821 biquadratic and state variable, 840–843 Butterworth, 819–820 capacitor-input, 103–110, 992 Cauer, 798 Chebyshev, 821–822 choke-input, 101–103 equal-component low-pass, 822–826 frequency response of, 790 higher-order, 819–822 higher-order LC, 808–809 high-pass, 826–829 ideal responses of, 790–793 KHN, 841 lc, 115–116 maximally flat delay, 800 MFB, 829–833 MFB bandpass, 829–833 narrowband, 792, 830–831 other types of, 802–804 passive, 115, 788, 795, 805–809 phase response of, 793 quiescent point (Q point) of, 792 rc, 115 Sallen-Key equal-component, 822–823 Sallen-Key low-pass, 813 Sallen-Key second-order notch, 833–834 unity-gain second-order low-pass, 813–819 VCVS, 813–819, 822–826 wideband, 792, 829–830 firing angle, 543 firm voltage divider, 257 first approximation, 6–7 first-order all-pass lag filter, 835 first-order all-pass lead filter, 835 first-order all-pass stage, 835 first-order response, 672 first-order stages, 809–813 first stage voltage gain, 328 555 circuits, 935–942 555 timer, 924–931 astable operation of, 931–935 fixed base current, 243 fixed emitter current, 243 fixed frequency mode (FF), 892 fixed regulators, 980 floating, 127 floating load, 770–772 floating-load design, 127 flow, 35 of free electrons, 35, 40 of holes, 35 of one electron, 40 types of, 36 FM demodulator, 944, 945 forced commutation, 534 formula, 4, 906–907 forward bias, 40–41 forward current, 71 forward region, 59 forward resistance, 75 forward voltage drop, 74 four-layer diode, 526–529 free electrons, 31, 36 flow of, 35, 40 free-running frequency, 943–944 free-running multivibrator, 926 free-wheeling, 504 frequency analysis of BJT stages, 602–609 of FET stages, 609–614 frequency divider, 858 frequency effects of surface-mount circuits, 615 frequency mixers, 449 frequency modulation (FM), 944 frequency ranges, 369 frequency response of ac amplifiers, 570 of amplifier, 570 of filters, 790 of 741 op amp, 675 frequency scaling factor (FSF), 821 frequency-shift keying (FSK), 944, 945 full-wave filtering, 104–105 full-wave rectifiers, 93–97 average value, 95 with capacitor-input filter, 111 output frequency, 95 second approximation, 95 vs bridge rectifiers, 98–99 full-wave voltage doubler, 127–128 functional block diagram, 926–927 functional blocks, 559 function generator ICs, 945–950 fundamental frequency, 921 fuse current, 113 fuses, 113, 118 Index G gain-bandwidth product (GBP), 727, 816–817 gain-bandwidth product (GBW), 683 gain stability, 716–717 gate, 416–417, 530 gate bias, 422 gate-controlled switch, 556 gate lead, 416 gate-source cutoff voltage, 419–420, 457 gate trigger current (IGT), 531 gate triggering, 530–531 gate trigger voltage (VGT), 531 gate voltage, 417 geometric average, 792 germanium, 31 vs silicon, 48 grounded load, 772 guard driving, 762 H half-power frequencies, 396, 571 half-wave rectifiers, 88–91, 95, 881–882 half-wave rectifiers with capacitor-input filter, 110–111 half-wave signal, 88, 89 half-wave voltage, 89 hard saturation, 224, 422–423 harmonic distortion, 718–719 harmonics, 179, 394–395, 718 Hartley oscillator, 918 H-bridge discrete, 504–505 monolithic, 505–508 MOSFET, 502–508 headroom voltage, 970–971 heat energy, 34 heat sinks, 210, 403–404 higher approximation of transistors, 204 higher approximations, 89 higher-order filters, 819–822 higher-order LC filters, 808–809 higher output voltage, 963–964 high-field emission, 146 high frequencies, poor rectification at, 173 high-frequency analysis of FETs, 611–612 high-impedance probe, 742 high-level video AGC, 776–777 high-pass filters, 790–791, 826–829 high-pass stage, 810–812 high-power LEDs, 168–169 high-side load switches, 498 high-side MOSFET load switches, 498–502 high-side switches, 502 holding current, 527 hole flow, 35 holes, 34, 36–37 hot carrier, 174 hot-carrier diode, 174 Howland current source, 773–774 h parameters, 211, 303 hybrid IC, 654 hyperabrupt junction, 176 hysteresis, 866–867 1093 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an I IC Class-D amplifiers, 890–892 ICIS (current-controlled current source), 712 amplifier, 725–726 IC regulators, 978 IC timer, 924 IC voltage gain, 539–540 IC voltage regulator, 116 IC voltage regulators, 978 ICVS (current-controlled voltage source), 712, 713 amplifier, 721–722 ideal analysis of diff amps, 629–630 ideal approximation collector-emitter voltage, 215 described, 6–7 of transistors, 203 ideal Bode plots, 588–589 ideal closed-loop voltage gain, 714–715 ideal dc voltage source, ideal diode, 61–62 ideal responses of filters, 790–793 ideal voltage sources second approximations and, ideal waveforms, 88–89 ideal zener diode, 144 IDSS, 457 IGBTs (insulated-gate bipolar transistors), 524 advantages of, 552, 556 construction of, 551–552 control of, 552 data sheets for, 553–554 IGSS, 457 impedance matching, 347, 581–583 in-circuit tests, 248 inductive kick, 990 input bias current, 640–641 input characteristics of op amps, 640–647 input coupling capacitor, 602 input diff amp, 671 input frequency, 943–944 input impedance, 682 of the base, 297 of the base of emitter follower, 336 of the base of swamped amplifier, 336 of CB amplifier, 352 closed-loop, 717–718 of diff amps, 637 increase of, 831–832 load effect of, 308–311 noninverting, 722 of the stage of emitter follower, 336 input offset current, 641, 642 input offset voltage, 643 input transducer, 757 input voltage calculating, 286 equation for, 309 output current directly proportional to, 772–773 inrush current, 501 instantaneous operating point, 290 instrumentation amplifiers, 759–763 insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), 524 advantages of, 552, 556 construction of, 551–552 control of, 552 data sheets for, 553–554 insulated gate FETs (IGFETs), 470 integrated circuits (ICs), 116, 188, 289, 651–654 integrated crowbar, 540 integrated instrumentation amplifiers, 762–763 integration, 870 integrator, 870–873 interface, power FETs as, 494 intermediate-frequency (IF) amplifiers, 700 internal capacitances, 570 internal resistance, intrinsic semiconductors, 35 inverse Chebyshev approximations, 797–798 inverter/noninverter circuits, 748–753 inverters, 486 with adjustable gain, 750 inverting amplifier circuits, 742–744 inverting amplifiers, 596, 680–686 bandwidth, 682–683 bias and offsets, 683–684 input current of, 722 input impedance, 682 inverting negative feedback, 680 single supply, 778 virtual ground, 680–681 voltage gain, 681–682 inverting comparators, 853–854 inverting input, 626 inverting-input configurations, 636 inverting-input op amps, 628 ion creation, 39 iron-core transformers, 112 I-V graph, 142 J JFETs See junction field-effect transistors (JFETs) junction diode, 38 junction field-effect transistor (JFET) amplifiers, 438–443 junction field-effect transistor (JFET) analog switches, 444–447 junction field-effect transistor (JFET) applications, 447–452 junction field-effect transistor (JFET) buffers, 454 junction field-effect transistor (JFET) choppers, 445 junction field-effect transistor (JFET)controlled switchable inverters, 749 junction field-effect transistors (JFETs) breakdown ratings for, 455 data sheets for, 455–458 IDSS, 457 n-channel, 417 ohmic resistance of, 419 operation of, 416–417 p-channel, 417 Q point of, 426 as RF amplifiers, 455 schematic symbol of, 417 static characteristic of, 457 table of, 457–458 testing of, 458 transconductance curve of, 420–421 VGS, 457 vs bipolar transistors, 417 junction field-effect transistor (JFET) series switches, 444 junction field-effect transistor (JFET) shunt switches, 444 junction field-effect transistor (JFET)-switched voltage gain, 745–746 junction temperature, 46, 199 K KHN filters, 841 Kirchhoff’s current law, 146, 193 knee voltage, 59 L lag circuits, 591, 592, 905 large-scale integration (LSI), 654 large-signal bandwidth, 677 large-signal operation, 369 large signals, 372 laser diodes, 171–172 laser trimming, 762–763 latches closing of, 526–527 opening of, 527 triggering of, 530 law, 4–5 lc filter, 115–116 lc oscillators, 912, 917–920, 925 lead circuit, 906 lead-lag circuit, 906 leakage region, 142 leaky diode, 69 lifetime, 34 light-activated SCR, 556 light and electron fall, 44 light emitting diodes (LEDs) brightness, 164 colors of, 44 driver applications, 997–998 drivers of, 245–248 high-power, 168–169 operation and function of, 162–170 specifications and characteristics, 164–166 voltage and current, 164 lightning, 177 limit detector, 860 limiters, 118–122 linear device, 58 linear equation, 216 linear phase shift, 800, 837 linear region, 201, 855 linear resistance, 13 linear scales, 587 line regulation, 961, 978–979 line voltage, 91 Lissajous pattern, 853 LM7800 series voltage regulators, 979–980 LM79XX series voltage regulators, 980 load current, 145 loaded diff amps, 656–658 loaded zener regulator, 145–149 loading effect of input impedance, 308–311 Index 1094 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an loading error, 15 load-line equation, 216 load lines Class-A operation, 379–381 Class-B operation, 384–385 Class-C operation, 393–394 dc and ac, 370–372, 384–385, 393–394 equation for, 76 operation and function of, 76–77 Q point, 77 Q point in middle of, 259 for transistors, 215–220, 243 for zener diodes, 162 load regulation, 960–961, 962, 963, 978–979 load resistance, 256 load resistors, 104 load voltage zener resistance effect on, 150–151 lock range of PLL, 944 logarithmic scales, 587 logarithms, 575–576 long-tail pair, 629 loop gain, 714, 904 low-current drop-out, 527 lower trip point (LTP), 866 low-frequency analysis, 609–610 low-level video AGC, 776 low-noise amplifier, 449 low-pass filter, 790 low-pass stage, 809–810 low-power IC regulators, 978 low-side switches, 502 LTP (lower trip point), 866 luminous efficacy, 169 luminous intensity, 164 M majority carriers, 37 maximally flat approximation See Butterworth approximations maximally flat delay filter, 800 maximum current, zener diodes, 156 maximum current and power, 210 maximum drain current, 457 maximum forward current, 60, 71, 73 maximum gate-source voltage, 478 maximum peak (MP) output, 372, 381 maximum peak-to-peak (MPP) output, 372, 385, 674–675 maximum power rating, 199 maximum reverse current, 74 maximum unclipped peak-to-peak output (MPP), output error voltage reducing, 689 mean time between failure (MTBF), 988 mechanical ground, 680 mechanical short, 687 medium-scale integration (MSI), 654 metal-oxide semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs), 470, 489 See also depletion mode MOSFETs (D-MOSFETs); enhancement-mode MOSFETs (E-MOSFETs) MFB bandpass filters, 829–833 mho, 436 midband, 571, 590–591 Miller effect, 596–599, 672 Miller integrator, 870 Miller’s theorem, 597 milliwatt reference, 584 minority-carrier current, 42 minority carriers, 37 mixer, defined, 692 modulating signal, 937–938 monolithic boost regulators, 994–995 monolithic buck-boost regulators, 995–996 monolithic buck regulators, 992–994 monolithic H-bridge, 505–508 monolithic ICs, 653 monolithic linear regulators, 978–984 monostable, 924 monostable multivibrator, 926 monostable operation, 924–926, 928–930 monotonic, 797 Moore’s law, 654 MOS (metal-oxide semiconductor) See complementary MOS (CMOS); metal-oxide semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs); vertical MOS (VMOS) MOSFET H-bridge, 502–508 MOSFETs (metal-oxide semiconductor FETs), 470, 489 See also depletion mode MOSFETs (D-MOSFETs); enhancement-mode MOSFETs (E-MOSFETs) MOSFET testing, 512–513 mounting capacitance, 921 MPP (maximum peak-to-peak) output, 372, 385 mulling circuits, 645 multimeters, Multisim, 1034 multiple-feedback (MFB) filter, 830 multiplexing, 447 Multisim, 1017–1062 Bode plotter, 1037–1038 circuit (examples), 1038–1051 components, 1024–1028 file opening, 1021–1022 file saving, 1023–1024 measurement equipment, 1033–1038 multimeters, 1034 oscilloscopes, 1035–1036 overview, 1017 simulation running, 1022 sources, 1029–1033 text and graphics addition, 1058–1061 user customization, 1052–1058 voltage and current meters, 1037 work area, 1017–1020 multistage amplifiers, 328–331 multivibrator, 926 N narrowband amplifiers, 369 narrowband filters, 792, 830–831 natural logarithm, 878, 934 n-channel junction field-effect transistor (JFET), 417 n-channel load switch, 500 negative clampers, 124–125 negative clipper, 120 negative feedback Index described, 264 diagrams of, 713 of emitter follower, 335 ideal, 712 table of, 728–729 types, 712–713 negative feedback, inverting, 680 negative resistance, 179–180 negative supply, 268 negative voltage regulators, 980 90 percent point, 599 noise, 449, 864 noise levels, 978 noise triggering, 865 noncoherent light, 171 noninverting amplifier, 686–690, 778 basic circuit, 686–687 other quantities, 688–689 output error voltage reduces MPP, 689 virtual short, 687 voltage gain, 687–688 noninverting amplifier circuits, 744–747 noninverting circuit, 867 noninverting input, 626 noninverting input impedances, 722 noninverting-input op amps, 628 noninverting output impedances, 722 noninverting Schmitt trigger, 867 nonlinear circuits, 850 nonlinear device, 58 nonlinear distortion, 718–719 normalized transconductance curve, 420 normally on devices, 472 Norton circuits vs Thevenin circuits, 17–20 Norton current, 16–17 Norton resistance, 17 Norton’s theorem, 16–20 notation dc and ac, 293 double-subscript, 196 prime, 294 single-subscript, 196 notch filter, 793, 908 npn device, 190 npn transistor, 229, 527 n-type energy bands, 45 n-type inversion layer, 477 n-type semiconductors, 37–38 nulling circuit, 673 O octaves, 586, 592 offset voltage, 120 Ohmic region biasing in, 482 ohmic region, 419 biasing in, 422 described, 419 of E-MOSFETs, 478–485 ohmic resistance, 60, 419 Ohm’s law, 5–6, 143–144 on-card regulation, 978 one-shot multivibrator, 926 Online Learning Center (OLC), 1010, 1066 on-off ratio, 445 op amp differentiator, 886 1095 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an op amp integrator, 871 op amps See operational amplifiers open-circuit voltage, 13 open-collector comparator, 860 open-collector devices, 860–861 open devices, 20–21 open-loop bandwidth, 682 open-loop voltage gain, 669 open state, 526 operating points, 216, 220–222 operation, classes of, 368 operational amplifier (op amp) differentiators, 886 operational amplifier (op amp) integrators, 871 operational amplifiers (op amps) See also 741 op amps applications of, 691–695 basic configurations, 696 compensating an, 597–598 described, 572, 624 gain-bandwidth product (GBP) of, 816–817 input characteristics of, 640–647 internal compensation of, 597 introduction to, 668–670 inverting amplifier, 680–686 limiters with, 120 linear ICs, 695–701 noninverting amplifier, 686–690 741 op amp, 670–679 as surface-mount devices, 701 table of, 696–699 typical characteristics of, 669 optocouplers, 171, 351 optoelectronic devices, 162–172, 250–252 optoelectronics, 162 optoisolators, 171 orbits, 30, 43–44 order of filters, 795 oscillations, 591 oscillators, 180, 902–950 ac equivalent circuit of, 913 Armstrong, 917–918 CB, 915 Clapp, 919 Colpitts, 912–917 Colpitts crystal, 923 coupling to a load, 914 crystal, 919–920, 923 defined, 449 FET Colpitts, 916 Hartley, 918 lc, 912, 917–920 output voltage of, 914 phase-shift, 910, 911–912 Pierce crystal, 923 quartz-crystal, 919–920 rc, 910–912 relaxation, 877–878 starting conditions of, 913–914 twin-T, 910–911 voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) operation, 933–934 Wine-Bridge, 905–910 oscilloscopes, multisim, 1035–1036 outboard transistors, 985 out-of-circuit tests, 229–230 output compliance, 372 output coupling capacitor, 602 output current, 772–773 output error voltage, 671, 689 output frequency, 89, 95 output impedance, 339–342 basic idea, 339 of CE amplifiers, 339–340 closed-loop, 718 emitter follower, 340 ideal formulation, 340–341 noninverting, 722 output offset elimination, 872 output power, 376 output resistance, 961–962 output ripple, 151 output transducer, 757 output voltage, 963–964 of ICVS amplifiers, 721 of oscillators, 914 ramp of, 870, 871 of series regulators, 970 overdamped response, 808 overtones, 921 P parallel connections, 14 parallel resonant frequency, 922 parasitic body-diode, 492 parasitic elements, 492–493 passband, 790 passband attenuation, 794–795 passivation, 651 passive filters, 115, 788, 795, 805–809 passive-load switching, 486 pass transistors, 969, 970, 988 p-channel junction field-effect transistor (JFET), 417 p-channel load switch, 499–500 peak detector, 125 peaked response, 814–815 peak inverse voltage (PIV), 110–112 peak-to-peak detector, 125 pentavalent atoms, 36 percent of total harmonic distortion, 719 periodic signal, 874 phase, 904 phase angle, 593 Bode plot of, 593–594 phase angle control, 541–544 phase control of voltage to triac, 546 phase detector, 942 phase filter, 835 phase-locked loop (PLL), 942–945 phase response, 793 phase shifter, 752–753 phase-shift oscillators, 910, 911–912 phase splitter, 987–988 phasing dots, 91–92 photodiodes, 170–171 vs phototransistor, 250–251 photo-SCRs, 556 phototransistors, 250–251 vs photodiodes, 250–251 Pierce crystal oscillators, 923 piezoelectric effect, 920 pinchoff voltage, 419 PIN diodes, 181 pinout (pin numbers), 763 PIV (reverse breakdown voltage), 71 PLL (phase-locked loop), 942–945 ␲ model, 298 pn junction, 38, 39, 46, 69, 229, 1011 pnp device, 190 pnpn diode, 527 pnp transistor, 230, 268–269, 527 polarity, 107 polarized capacitor, 107 pole frequency, 814 poles, 795 positive clamper, 123–124 positive clipper, 119 positive feedback, 526 positive power supply, 269 power amplifiers, 370 power bandwidth, 677 power consumption, 490 power dissipation, 60, 376, 386–387, 399, 457, 970–971, 1012 of zener diodes, 156 power FETs as interface, 494 operation and function of, 491–498 in parallel, 494 vs bipolar transistors, 494 vs SCRs, 535 power formulas, 386 power gain, 576, 577 of Class-A amplifiers, 375–376 power rating, 60 power supplies characteristics of, 960–962 described, 103 improved regulations of, 964–965 output resistance of, 961–962 troubleshooting of, 116–11 power supply rejection ratio (PSRR), 696 power transfer maximization, 339 power transistors, 207 practical op amp differentiator, 886 preamp, 369 predistortion, 817 preregulator, 148 programmable unijunction transistor (PUT), 557–559 prototype, 240, 538–539, 794 PRV (reverse breakdown voltage), 71 p-type energy bands, 45 p-type semiconductors, 38 pullup resistor, 861 pulse generation, 948 pulse-position modulation (PPM), 938 pulse waves, 875–876 pulse width, 929, 930, 931, 932 pulse-width modulation (PWM), 503, 888, 890, 930, 937–938 push-pull, 382 push-pull circuits Class-B operation and, 382–383 Class-B push-pull emitter follower and, 383–384 Index 1096 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an Q Q point See quiescent point (Q point) quad comparator, 861 quartz, 920 quartz-crystal oscillators, 919–920 quartz crystals, 920–924 quasicomplimentary output stage, 347 quiescent point (Q point) of bandpass filters, 792 described, 77 formulas, 221 junction field-effect transistors (JFETs), 426 location of, 242–243 in middle of load line, 259 plotting, 220–221 and resonant frequency, 806–807 and saturation, 222–224 for transistors, 220–221, 225–226 variations of, 221 of voltage-divider bias (VDB), 258–259 quiescent (idling) power consumption, 490 quiescent power dissipation, 376 R radio-frequency (RF) amplifiers, 369, 700 radio-frequency interference (RFI), 968 rail-to-rail op amp, 769–770 rail-to-rail operation, 769 ramp generation, 938–939, 948 ramp of output voltage, 870, 871 ranges of frequencies, 369 rc differentiator, 885–886 rc filters, 115 rc oscillators, 910–912, 925 rc phase control, 541–544 recombination, 34 rectangular waves, 873, 874–875 rectified forward current, 71 rectifier diodes, 118 rectifiers, 93–95 active half-wave, 881–882 average value of, 95 bridge, 97–101, 111 center-tapped full-wave, 99 conventional full-wave, 99 dc value of, 95 filtering the output of, 102–103 full-wave, 93–97, 99, 111 half-wave, 88–91, 95, 110–111, 881–882 silicon controlled, 530–538 two-diode full-wave, 99 regions of operation, 199 regulated dual supplies, 980–981 regulators See also series regulators; zener regulators adjustable, 981–982 boost, 991–992 buck, 988–991 buck-boost, 992 dropout IC, 978 efficiency of, 965, 968 fixed, 980 IC, types of, 978 IC voltage, 116, 978 line, 961, 978–979 LM7800 series voltage, 979–980 LM79XX series voltage, 980 loaded zener, 145–149 low-power IC, 978 monolithic boost, 994–995 monolithic buck, 992–994 monolithic buck-boost, 995–996 monolithic linear, 978–984 negative voltage, 980 shunt, 962–968, 969 switching, 103, 968, 986, 988–999 table of, 982–983 two-transistor, 348–349, 969–670 voltage, 979, 1000–1001 zener voltage, 143 relaxation oscillators, 877–878 reset, 883 reset input, 928 resistance, 5, 75 resistance temperature detectors (RTD), 757 resonant circuit bandwidth, 396–397 resonant frequency of Class-C amplifiers, 393 defined, 175 formula for, 906–907 of lc circuits, 913 of peaking, 814–815 and Q, 806–807 responses of ac amplifiers, 570 of dc amplifiers, 571–572 reverse bias, 41–42, 416–417 reverse-biased diode, 47–48 reverse breakdown voltage, 71 reverse conduction, 173 reverse current, 74 charge storage produces, 172–173 reverse recovery time, 173 reverse resistance, 75 reverse saturation current, 47–48 reverse snap-off, 178 reversible gain, 751 ripple formula, 105–106, 127 ripple rejection, 982 ripples, 103, 151, 796–797 risetime, 599–600 risetime-bandwidth relationship, 599–601 Rochelle salts, 920 roll-off of different approximations, 801–802 roll-off rate, 795 r parameters, 303 R/2R D/A converter, 1063–1064 R/2R ladder D/A converter, 767 rs flip-flop, 927–928 S safety factor, 71 Sallen-Key equal-component filters, 822 Sallen-Key low-pass filters (VCVS filters), 813 Sallen-Key second-order notch filters, 833–834 Sallen-Key unity-gain second-order stage, 822 saturation, 33 saturation current, 42 saturation-current method, 223 Index saturation point, 76, 216–217 saturation region, 199, 223 sawtooth generator, 529 schematic symbols, 11, 58 of of E-MOSFETs, 477–478 of junction field-effect transistors (JFETs), 417 Schmitt trigger, 865–866 Schockley diode, 527 Schottky barrier, 174 Schottky diode, 172–175 applications, 174–175 charge storage, 172–173, 174 high-speed turnoff, 174 hot-carrier diode, 174 poor rectification at high frequencies, 173 reverse recovery time, 173 SCR crowbar, 538–541 SCR phase control, 541–545 SCRs See silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) second approximations defined, of diff amps, 630 full-wave rectifiers, 95 of half-wave voltage, 89 and ideal voltage sources, for load current and voltage, 64 of transistors, 203, 204 of transistor voltages, 249 of zener diode, 150–151 secondary voltage, 91 second-order all-pass filter, 835–837 second-order biquadratic bandpass/lowpass filter, 840 second-order MFB all-pass lag filter, 836 second stage voltage gain, 329 self-bias, 265–266, 425–426 semiconductor lasers, 171 semiconductors, 31–32, 36–37 components, 1010 doping, 36–37 extrinsic, 36, 37–38 flow through, 35 intrinsic, 35 silicon, 31–32 series current, 145 series regulators current limiting of, 971–973 efficiency of, 970–971 improved regulation of, 971 operation and function of, 968–977 output voltage of, 970 vs shunt regulators, 969 series resonant frequency, 922 series switches, 444 set input, 928 741 op amp, 670–679 active loading, 672 bias and offsets, 673 common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), 673–674 final stage, 671–672 frequency compensation, 672–673 frequency response, 675 industry standard, 670–671 input diff amp, 671 1097 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an 741 op am (continued) maximum peak-to-peak output, 674–675 short-circuit current, 675 slew rate, 675–677 seven-segment display, 170 shells, 30 shoot-through current, 503 short-circuit current, 17 short-circuit output current, 675 short-circuit protection, 965, 971, 985–986 shorted devices, 21 shunt regulators, 962–968, 969 short-circuit protection from, 965 vs series regulators, 969 shunt switches, 444 siemen (S), 436 signal levels, 369–370 sign changer, 750–751 silicon, 31–32, 48 vs germanium, 48 silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs), 524, 530–538 data sheets, 532–533 required input voltage, 531 resetting of, 531, 534 structure of, 530 testing of, 537–538 vs power FETs, 535 silicon controlled switch, 556–557 silicon crystals, 32–34 covalent bonds, 33 hole, 34 lifetime, 34 recombination, 34 valence saturation, 33–34 silicon unilateral switch (SUS), 527 sine-wave output, 935–936, 946 sine waves conversion of, to rectangular waves, 874 conversion of, to square waves, 854 single-ended output, 627–628 single-ended output gain, 635 single-point regulation, 978 single-subscript notation, 196 single-supply comparators, 860 single-supply op amps, 778–779 single-supply operation, 777–779 sinusoidal oscillation, 904–905 sinusoidal voltage, 1013 sirens, 936–937 dB per octave, 592 60-Hz clock, 658 slew rate, 675–677 slew rate distortion, 728 slow-blow fuses, 113–114 small-scale integration (SSI), 654 small signal, 291 small-signal amplifiers, 291 small-signal devices, 457 small-signal diodes, 119 small-signal operation, 290–292, 369 distortion, 290 instantaneous operating point, 290 10 percent rule, 291 reducing distortion, 290–291 small-signal transistors, 207 snap diodes, 179 soft saturation, 224 soft-start function, 501 soft turn-on, 498, 539 solder bridge, 20 SOT-23, 78 source, 416 source follower, 417, 439–440 source resistance, 7, 255–256 space, 938 speed-up capacitor, 867–868 spikes, 177 s plane, 814 split-half method, 355 spread spectrum (SS) mode, 892 square-law devices, 420 square wave, 122, 854 squelch circuit, 747 SS (spread spectrum) mode, 892 stable orbits, 30 stage efficiency, 399–400 stages, 262 standoff voltage, 557–558 starting conditions of oscillators, 913–914 starting voltage and thermal noise, 905 state variable filter, 841 static charge, 478 step down transformers, 92 step-recovery diodes, 178–179 step up transformers, 92 stiff clampers, 123–124 stiff clipper, 120 stiff current sources, 11 stiff voltage divider, 256 stiff voltage source, 9–10, 255 stopband, 790 stopband attenuation, 794–795 stray-wiring capacitances, 570 substrate, 472 subtracter, 763 summing amplifier, 691–692 summing amplifier circuits, 763–767 superposition theorem, 298, 299 supply characteristics, 960–962 surface-leakage current, 42, 48 surface-mount circuits, 615 surface-mount devices, op amps as, 701 surface-mount diodes, 77–78 surface-mount transistors, 212–213 surge current, 110–112 surge resistor, 111 swamped amplifiers, 311–314, 331 ac emitter feedback, 311–312 input impedance of the base, 312–313 less distortion with large signals, 313 voltage gain of, 312 swamped voltage amplifiers, 391 swamping, 312 swamp out, 264 switchable inverter/noninverter, 748–749 switching circuits, 201, 222, 226, 485–486 switching devices, 478 switching regulators, 103, 968, 986, 988–999 system level, 559 T tail current, 629–630, 655 tails, 173 temperature and barrier potential, 46 and current, 214 temperature coefficients, 147 10 percent point, 599 10 percent rule, 291 tests and testing, 537–538 THD (total harmonic distortion), 890 theorem, 13 thermal drift, 673 thermal energy, 34 thermal noise, 864 voltage gain and, 905 thermal resistances, 210 thermal runaway, 389, 493–494 thermal shutdown, 979 thermistor, 757 thermocouples, 757 Thevenin circuits vs Norton circuits, 19–20 Thevenin resistance, 13, 688 Thevenin’s theorem, 13–14 Thevenin voltage, 13 thick-film ICs, 653 thin-film ICs, 653 third approximation, 7, 66 thresholds, 927 reference, 854 threshold voltage, 477, 927 thyristors, 524, 556–559 time-delay filter, 835 timers See also 555 timer duty cycle, 933 functional block diagram of, 926–927 resetting, 935–939 starting, 935–939 TLDR5400 Partial Datasheet, 165 TLL (transistor-transistor logic), 507, 855–856, 862, 935 T model, 297–298 and voltage gain, 306 tolerances, 156 topologies, 989 total harmonic distortion (THD), 890 total voltage gain, 329 Tourmaline, 920, 921 transconductance, 436–437, 713 and gate-source cutoff voltage, 437 transconductance amplifier, 712 transconductance curves of junction field-effect transistors (JFETs), 420–421 slope of, 436–437 transconductance equation, 1013 transducers, 757 transfer characteristic, 859 transformer coupling, 368, 370 transformers, 91–93 transient current, 47 transient suppressor, 178 transistor approximations, 203–204 transistor currents, 193–195 transistor models, 297–298 ␲ model, 298 T model, 297–298 transistor power dissipation, 376, 386–387, 399 transistor power rating, 401–405 Index 1098 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an transistors See also field-effect transistors (FETs); insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) approximations of, 203–206 base bias, 215 biased, 191–193 bipolar, 417, 493–494 bipolar junction, 188, 493–494 breakdown ratings of, 207 current gain of, 194, 214 currents, 193–195 cutoff point, 217 Darlington, 345 data sheets for, 207–212 derivations of current, 194 external, 985 half-cycle, 1012 higher approximation of, 204 ideal approximation of, 203 and Kirchhoff’s current law, 193 load line, 215–220, 243 models, 297–298 operating points, 216 operating regions of, 201 outboard, 985 pass, 969, 970, 988 phototransistors, 250–251 pnp, 268–269 power, 207 power rating, 401–405 programmable unijunction transistor (PUT), 557–559 properly biasing, 215 Q point for, 220–221 saturation point, 216–217 second approximation of, 203 small-signal, 207 surface-mount, 212–213 transistor switch, 225–226 transistor-transistor logic, 855 troubleshooting of, 227–230, 248–250 two-transistor regulator, 348–349, 969–670 unbiased, 190–191 unijunction, 557–559 unipolar, 414 voltages of, 248–249 transistor switch, 225–226 transistor-transistor logic (TLL), 507, 855–856, 862, 935 transistor voltages, 248–249 transition, 790 transresistance, 713 transresistance amplifier, 712 triac crowbar, 550 triacs, 545–546 triangle-wave output, 946 triangular generators, 880–881 triangular waves conversion of rectangular waves to, 874–875 conversion of to pulse waves, 875–876 generation of, 878–879 trickle bias, 478 trigger, 530, 926 trigger adjust, 539 trimming, 762–763 trip point (threshold reference), 539, 854, 859–860 trivalent atoms, 36–37 trivalent impurity, 36 troubleshooting, 315 component level, 559 of diodes, 69–70 of multistage amplifiers, 355–356 normal values, 21 open device, 20–21 of power supplies, 116–118 procedure, 21 purpose and approach to, 20–22 R1 open, 21 R2 open, 21 shorted device, 21 split-half method, 355 system level, 559 of transistors, 227–230, 248–250 of tuned Class-C amplifier, 395 of voltage-divider bias, 266–267 of zener regulators, 159–162 TT (Tow-Thomas) filter, 840 tunable center frequency, 832 tuned Class-C amplifiers, 396–401 tuned RF amplifiers, 369–370 tuning diodes, 175–177 tunnel diodes, 179–180 turns ratio, 91, 92 twin-T filters, 910 twin-T oscillators, 910–911 two-diode full-wave rectifier, 99 two load lines, 370–375 ac load line, 370–372, 380 clipping of large signals, 372 dc load line, 370–371, 380 maximum output, 372–373 two-stage feedback, 331–333 basic idea, 331–332 voltage gain of, 332 two-stage feedback amplifiers, 328, 331–333 two-stage negative feedback, 392–393 two-state circuits, 226 two-supply emitter bias (TSEB), 260–264 analysis, 261–262 base voltage, 262 two-supply emitter bias (TSEB) amplifiers, 289, 300–301 two-supply emitter bias (TSEB) circuit, 289 two-supply source bias, 432 two-terminal devices, 487 two transistor models, 297–298 two-transistor regulators, 348–349, 969–670 U ultra high frequency (UHF), 449 ultra large scale integration (ULSI), 654 unbiased diodes, 38–40 unbiased transistors, 190–191 underdamped response, 808 undirectional load current, 769 unidirectional booster, 768–769 unidirectional load current, 88 unijunction transistor (UJT), 557–559 unijunction transistor and PUT, 557–559 uninterruptible power supply (UPS), 494 Index unipolar transistors, 414 unity-gain frequency, 589 upper trip point (UTP), 866 UTP (upper trip point), 866 V valence electrons, 31 valence orbits, 30, 33 valence saturation, 33–34 varactor, 175–177 varicap, 175–177 varistors, 177–181 VCIS (voltage-controlled current source), 712 amplifier, 723–724 floating load, 770–772 grounded load, 772 Howland current source, 773–774 output current, 772–773 VCO (voltage-controlled oscillator), 933–934, 942 VCVS (voltage-controlled voltage source), 712, 713–719 equations, 716–719 voltage gain, 713–715 VCVS (voltage-controlled voltage source) equal-component low-pass filters, 822–826 VCVS (voltage-controlled voltage source) filters, 813 VCVS (voltage-controlled voltage source) high-pass filters, 826–829 VCVS (voltage-controlled voltage source) unity-gain second-order low-pass filters, 813–819 vertical MOS (VMOS), 491 very high frequency (VHF), 449 very large scale integration (VLSI), 654 VGS, 457 video amplifiers, 700 video frequencies, 776 virtual ground, 680–681 virtual short, 687 visible laser diodes (VLDs), 172 voltage, dc load, 106 voltage and current meters, Multisim, 1037 voltage-controlled current source (VCIS), 712 amplifier, 723–724 floating load, 770–772 grounded load, 772 Howland current source, 773–774 output current, 772–773 voltage-controlled device, 417 voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), 933–934, 942 voltage-controlled resistance, 449–451 voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS), 669, 712, 713–719 equations, 716–719 voltage gain, 713–715 voltage-divider based (VDB) amplifiers, 370–371 voltage-divider bias (VDB) analysis of, 255–258 design guide line for, 259 and JFETs, 428–430 load line, 259 1099 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn