Sự biến đổi nghĩa của một số thành ngữ tiếng anh mỹ

ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA TP HỒ CHÍ MINH TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC KHOA HỌC XÃ HỘI VÀ NHÂN VĂN   HÀN NGỌC PHÚ SỰ BIẾN ĐỔI NGHĨA CỦA MỘT SỐ THÀNH NGỮ TIẾNG ANH MỸ LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ KHOA HỌC NGỮ VĂN Chuyên ngành : NGÔN NGỮ HỌC SO SÁNH Mã số : 5.04.27 TP HỒ CHÍ MINH 2007 ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA TP HỒ CHÍ MINH TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC KHOA HỌC XÃ HỘI VÀ NHÂN VĂN HÀN NGỌC PHÚ SỰ BIẾN ĐỔI NGHĨA CỦA MỘT SỐ THÀNH NGỮ TIẾNG ANH MỸ LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ KHOA HỌC NGỮ VĂN Chuyên ngành : NGÔN NGỮ HỌC SO SÁNH Mã số : 5.04.27 Người hướng dẫnkhoa học: GS.TS.BÙI KHÁNH THẾ TP HỒ CHÍ MINH 2007 LỜI NÓI ĐẦU Thành ngữ đề tài lôi quan tâm nhà ngôn ngữ học Việt Nam giới So sánh thành ngữ tiếng nước mẹ đẻ với tiếng nước khác xu hướng thu hút nhiều nhà nghiên cứu xu hội nhập toàn cầu Theo GS Hoàng Văn Hành, nhìn chung nghiên cứu thành ngữ thường tiến hành ba hướng: tầm nguyên (đi phục nguyên), so sánh tương phản thành ngữ ngôn ngữ với nhau, hướng nghiên cứu đồng đại nhằm khám phá trầm tích văn hóa thành ngữ Đề tài khảo sát chuyển nghóa số thành ngữ tiếng Anh Mỹõ (American – English) ba hướng nghiên cứu mà Hoàng Văn Hành nhận xét Nó đòi hỏi phải hiểu biết không vấn đề cấu ngôn ngữ mà kiến thức văn hóa-xã hội liên quan đến đối tượng nghiên cứu Người viết chọn đề tài nhằm mục đích hiểu rõ ngôn ngữ vốn có lịch sử lâu đời, lại sử dụng miền đất phát triển môi trường xã hội khoảng gần ba kỷ (1) Ngoài việc nghiê n cứu ngôn ngữ Mỹ, người viết có mong muốn qua cách thức tầm nguyên thành ngữ người Mỹ sử dụng, để áp dụng cho việc tầm nguyên thành ngữ người Việt Điều ích cho người Việt nước mà hữu dụng cho cho người Việt xa quê hương, qua cách làm tìm nguồn cội dân tộc qua ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ Năm 2007 đánh dấu 231 năm ngày độc lập Mỹ Khi ngườ i Việt xa quê hương định cư quốc gia khác, họ mong muốn nhanh chóng hòa nhập sống quốc gia họ đến Họ mong muốn có công ăn việc làm nhằm ổn định sống Phương tiện họ cần có ngôn ngữ nước mà họ đến (giả dụ họ đến Mỹ định cư), họ phải biết tiếng Anh Mỹõ Nước Mỹ nước xem tự tất người chấp nhậïn cách sống, cách nghó Định hướng “nồi đúc“của nhà lập pháp Mỹ mong muốn luyện tất người dân từ nước mang theo ngôn ngữ họ, văn hóa họ đến nước Mỹ luyện trở thành người với tính chất mới, “công dân Mỹ” Chính mà thành ngữ tiếng Anh Mỹõ hình thành từ tiếng Anh giao hòa với ngôn ngữ khác mà người dân nhập cư mang đế n Mỹ Một đường hiểu tiếng Anh Mỹõ nhanh thông qua lịch sử, văn hóa Mỹ , thông qua trầm tích văn hóa ẩn chứa thành ngữ Mỹ Việc khám phá trầm tích văn hóa có thành ngữ ngôn ngữ công việc phức tạp tốn nhiều công sức nhà nghiên cứu lịch sử, văn hóa nhà ngôn ngữ nghiên cứu thành ngữ Người viết nghiên cứu chuyển nghóa tiếng Anh Mỹõ nhờ thừa kế thành từ nhà nghiên cứu người Mỹ, nhà tạo lập từ điển Mỹ , từ điển online Asher Dictionary Online, The Free Dictionary Online, Encarta Dictionary Online, Britanica Encyclopedia,Cambridge International Eglish Dictionary Online, Oxford dictionary Online, đặc biệt hai trang web Etymology Dictionary Online (Từ nguyên từ điển trực tuyến) the Free Dictionary Online (đây trang web tập hợp từ điển bách khoa lớn giới, liên kết với trang web từ điển lớn khác Asher Dictionary) Thí dụ vào trang web Etymology Dictionary Online ô tra cứu, người tra cứu đánh vào từ tiếng Anh Mỹõ , trang web kết xuất xứ từ kèm theo biến nghóa theo thời gian Giả sử, truy tìm thành ngữ “landslide”: Trang web kết sau: landslide 1856, Amer.Eng., from land (n.) + slide Earlier was landslip (1679), still preferred in Britain In the political sense, landslide "lopsided electoral victory" is attested from 1888 Tạm dịch: Landslide từ Anh Mỹ bắt đầu xuất vào năm 1856, kết hợp từ land + slide; Đầu tiên phát xuất từ Landslip Từ landslip xuất vào năm 1679, từ ưa dùng Anh Quốc Thành ngữ landslide mang ý nghóa dùng trường “chiến thắng bầu cử vang dội sóng vỗ”, thừa nhận vốn từ tiếng Anh Mỹõ vào năm 1888 Việc tra cứu thật tiện lợi.Về cách sử dụng thành ngữ , người tra cứu vào trang web từ điển trực tuyến khác, có kết mong muốn Chẳng hạn sau: Trên trang web có từ điển Dictionary Thesaurus, Computing Dictionary, Medical Dictionary, Legal Dictionary, Financial Dictionary, Acronym, Idiom, Columbia Encyclopedia,Wikipedia Encyclopedia Moãi từ tra cứu có phần phiên âm quốc tế, cách đọc, nghóa kèm theo cách sử dụng thành ngữ liên quan kèm … trang web có chức khác Người viết xin trình bày cách tra cứu từ nguyên từ Mỹ để tiện cho việc thể dẫn chứng ý tưởng luận văn Người viết xin thành thật cảm ơn Thầy Cô mô n ngôn ngữ học tốn nhiều tâm huyết truyền đạt kiến thức cho học viên cao học ngôn ngữ học, có người viết Đặc biệt, Em xin cảm ơn Thầy GS TS Bùi Khánh Thế, người định hướng cho luận văn em, Thầy thường xuyên động viên, nhắc nhở em hoàn thành luận văn Người viết xin tỏ lòng tri ân đến tác giả có tác phẩm , công trình nghiên cứu mà thừa hưởng thành đề cập luận văn với tinh thần “Uống nước nhớ nguồn” Người viết chịu ơn nhiều tác giả học thành ngữ Ban Việt Ngữ Đài VOA, vị biên soạn học thành ngữ Mỹ cách cô đọng , tinh túy Xin cảm ơn vị Phòng đào tạo Sau Đại Học hỗ trợ tinh thần nhiều cho người viết sớm hoàn thành luận văn tốt nghiệp Trân trọng Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh Tháng năm 2007 LỜI CAM KẾT Tất tư liệu viết luận văn thu thập mạng Internet từ website có độ tin cậy cao Những thành ngữ tiếng Anh Mỹ õ đăng tải mạng VOA, tức thông tin có luận văn cập nhật, Tôi xin bảo đảm không chép tư liệu từ công trình nghiên cứu dở dang Hướng nghiên cứu ngữ nghóa thành ngữ tiếng Anh-Mỹ triển khai Việt Nam thông qua nhà từ điển làm từ điển thành ngữ, chưa có luận văn thạc só ngôn ngữ học triển khai theo hướng này, cam đoan không lấy tài liệu nghiên cứu luận văn khác triển khai Người viết luận văn CÁCH GHI CHÚ TRONG LUẬN VĂN NÀY: (*) xin xem qua trang web http://www.voanews.com/ học thành ngữ Thí dụ: (*, 25) xin xem học thành ngữ số 25 trang web (**) xin xem trang web http://www.etymolonline.com/, Thí dụ: (**, gun) xin tra cứu từ “gun” trang web (***) xin xem trang web http://www.thefreedictionaryonline.com/, Thí dụ: (***, stick to your guns) xin tra cứu thành ngữ “stick to your guns” hay “stick to one’s guns” trang web bê n MỤC LỤC LỜI NÓI ĐẦU LỜI CAM KEÁT MỞ ĐẦU 10 Lý chọn đề tài mục đích nghiên cứu 10 Lịch sử nghiên cứu thành ngữ tiếng Việt thành ngữ tiếng Anh Mỹõ 14 Đối tượng, nội dung phạm vi nghiên cứu 17 Phương pháp tư liệu nghiên cứu 18 Đóng góp luận văn .19 Bố cục luận văn 20 CHƯƠNG MỘT 22 CAÙC CƠ SỞ LÝ THUYẾT LIÊN QUAN ĐẾN THÀNH NGỮ 22 1.1 Vị trí thành ngữ vốn từ ngôn ngữ 22 1.2 Các cách hiểu Việt ngữ học thành ngữ .24 1.3 Các định nghóa thành ngữ tiế ng Anh Mỹ 26 1.4 Định nghóa chế hình thành phân loại thành ngữ 28 1.4.1 Cơ chế hình thành thành ngữ 28 1.4.2 Phân loại thành ngữ .45 1.5 Tác dụng thành ngữ 48 1.5.1 Tác dụng biểu trưng văn hóa 48 1.5.2 Tác dụng biểu cảm thành ngữ 49 11 Gray L.S (1999), Mastering idiomatic English: Adjective phrases, National Textbook Company, USA 12 Gray L.S (1999), Mastering idiomatic English: Noun phrases, National Textbook Company, USA 13 Gray L.S (1999), Mastering idiomatic English: Prepositional phrases, National Textbook Company, USA 14 Gray L.S (1999), Mastering idiomatic English:Verb phrases, National Textbook Company, USA 15 Halliday M.A.K (1991), An Introduction to Functional, 8th Edition 16 Johnathan Crowther and Kathryn Kavanagh (1999), Oxford Guide to British and American Culture for learners of English, Oxford University Press, NY 17 Lakoff R (1977), What you can with words: Politeness, Pragmatics and performatives, Washington D.C 18 Martin H.M (1983), A Dictionary of Contemporary Idioms, Macmillan Publishing Press, USA 19 Martin H.M (1995), Từ điển thành ngữ nói thường ngày tieáng Anh (A dictionary of everyday Idioms), NXB GD (in laïi) 20 Maxime T.B., John E.G & Adam M.(1985), A Dictionary of American Idioms, Barron’s Educational Series, Inc, Woodburry, NewYork 21 McCarthy Michael & Elizabeth W and Glennis P (1999), Cambridge international dictionary of Idioms, Cambridge University, N.Y 22 McCarthy Michel & O'Dell Felicity (2006), English idioms in use (6th Printed), Cambridge University, N.Y 144 23 Richard A.S (1987), NTC's American Idioms Dictionary, National Textbook Company,USA 24 Richard A.S.(1993), NTC's dictionary of phrasal verbs and other idiomatic verbal phrases, National Textbook Company, USA, 25 Richard A.S.(1994), NTS’s American Idioms Dictionary, National Textbook Company, USA 26 Robert Chapman (1994), A Slang, Harper & Row publishers Inc 27 Robert J.D (1951), Essential Idioms in English, Regents Publishing Co Inc 28 Seidl Jennifer and McMordie W.(1988), English Idioms, Oxford University Press, Fifth Edition, NY 29 Seidl Jennifer and McMordle W (1996), English Idioms, Oxford University Press, Oxford Hong Kong 30 Simpson J.(1993), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs, Oxford University Press, USA 31 Stern Karen (1999), Longman idioms dictionary, Longmans, London 32 Warren Helen (1994), Oxford learner's dictionary of English idiom, Oxford University Press, N.Y 33 Workman Graham (1995), Phrasal verbs and idioms: Advance (1st edition), Oxford University, N.Y 34 Workman Graham(1993), Phrasal verbs and idioms:Upperintermediate ( 1st edition), Oxford University, N.Y Và trang web sau: http://www.khoahoc.net/ 145 http://www.VOAnews.com/ http://www.etymolonline.com http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ Thông tin từ trang web tra cứu khỏang thời gian từ 10/5/2007 đến 20/6/2007 Và nhiều trang web khác 146 PHỤ LỤC Trích Từ nguyên từ điển số từ tiếng Anh Myõ bail (v.) 1613, from baile "bucket" (1336), from O.Fr baille "bucket," from M.L *bajula (aquae), lit "porter of water," from L bajulare "to bear a burden" (see bail (n.1)) bail (n.1) "bond money," 1485, developed from "temporary release from jail" (1466), and that from earlier meaning "captivity, custody" (1259) From O.Fr baillier "control, guard, deliver," from L bajulare "to bear a burden," from bajulus "porter," of unknown origin bail (n.2) "horizontal piece of wood in a cricket wicket," c.1742, originally "any cross bar" (1575), probably identical with M.Fr bail "horizontal piece of wood affixed on two stakes," and with Eng bail "palisade wall, outer wall of a castle" (see bailey) banana 1597, borrowed by Sp or Port from a W African word, possibly Wolof banana The plant introduced to the New World from Africa, 1516 Banana republic is from 1935 Bananas in the slang sense of "nuts" is first recorded 1935 Top banana, second banana, etc are 1950s, from show business slang use of banana for "comedian, especially in a burlesque show." Banana split first attested 1920 between O.E betweonum, from bi- "by" + tweonum dat pl of *tweon "two each" (cf Goth tweih-nai "two each") Horace Walpole's playful coinage betweenity (1760) is a useful word Between a rock and a hard place is from 1940s, originally cowboy slang 147 bone O.E ban, from P.Gmc *bainam (cf O.N bein, Dan ben, Ger Bein) No cognates outside Gmc (the common PIE root is *ost-); the O.N., Du., and Ger cognates also mean "shank of the leg," and this is the main sense in Mod.Ger., but Eng never seems to have had this sense To make bones about (1459) refers to bones found in soup, etc., as an obstacle to being swallowed To bone up "study" is 1880s student slang, from "Bohn's Classical Library," a popular series in higher education To feel something in one's bones "have a presentiment" is c.1880, Amer.Eng buck O.E bucca "male goat," from P.Gmc *bukkon (cf M.Du boc, O.H.G boc, O.N bokkr), perhaps from a PIE base *bhugo (cf Avestan buza "buck, goat," Arm buc "lamb"), but some speculate that it is from a lost pre-Gmc language Apparently O.E also had buc "male deer." The two words (if truly separate) were fully merged by c.1100 Verb is 1848, apparently with a sense of "jump like a buck." Meaning of "dollar" is 1856, Amer.Eng., perhaps an abbreviation of buckskin, a unit of trade among Indians and Europeans in frontier days, attested in this sense from 1748 Buckshot is first recorded 1447; buck up "cheer up" is from 1844 Pass the buck is first recorded in the lit sense 1865, Amer.Eng.: "The 'buck' is any inanimate object, usually knife or pencil, which is thrown into a jack pot and temporarily taken by the winner of the pot Whenever the deal reaches the holder of the 'buck', a new jack pot must be made." [J.W Keller, "Draw Poker," 1887] The fig, sense of "shift responsibility" is first recorded 1912 buy O.E bycgan (pt bohte) from P.Gmc *bugjanan (cf O.S buggjan, Goth bugjan), of unknown origin, not found outside Gmc The surviving spelling is southwest England dialect; the word was generally pronounced in O.E and M.E with a -dg- sound as "budge," or "bidge." Meaning "believe, accept as true" first recorded 1926 cabin 1346, from O.Fr cabane, from O.Prov cabana, from L.L capanna "hut," of doubtful origin Meaning "room or partition of a vessel" is from 1382 Cabin fever first recorded 1918 148 cahoots 1829, Amer.Eng., perhaps from Fr cahute "cabin;" but other sources suggest Fr cohorte catch (v.) c.1205, from Anglo-Fr cachier "catch, capture" (animals), from V.L *captiare "try to seize, chase," freq of L capere "to take, hold" (see capable) Sense shifted from original meaning of "chase, hunt." Past tense form caught is rare instance of Eng strong verb with Fr origin, probably infl by latch, the cognate native verb, which this word replaced Noun meaning "that which is caught or worth catching" (especially of spouses) is from 1596 Catchy was a colloquial word in 1831 To catch on "apprehend" is 1884, Amer.Eng colloquial To catch (someone's) eye is first attested 1813, in Jane Austen Catchword (1730) was originally the first word of the following page inserted at the righthand lower corner of each page of a book; extended to "word caught up and repeated" (especially in the political sense) by 1795 Catch as catch can first attested 1393 feather O.E feðer "feather," in pl., "wings," from Gmc *fethro (cf O.N fjöðr, M.Du vedere, Ger Feder), from PIE *petra-, zero degree *ptera- "wing, feather," from base *pet- "to rush, to fly" (see petition) To feather one's nest "enrich oneself" is from 1583 Feather-headed "silly" is from 1647 Feather-weight, the lightest allowable, is first recorded 1812, originally in horse-racing; boxing use dates from 1889 fever late O.E fefor, from L febris "fever," related to fovere "to warm, heat," probably from PIE base *dhegh- "burn" (cf Goth dags, O.E dæg "day," originally "the heat"); but some suggest a reduplication of a root represented by Skt *bhur- "to be restless." Adopted into most Gmc languages (cf Ger fieber, Sw feber, Da fever), but not in Du Eng spelling infl by O.Fr fievre Replaced O.E hriðing Extended sense of "intense nervous excitement" is from 1586 heel (n.) O.E hela, from P.Gmc *khangkh- (cf O.N hæll, O.Fris hel, Du hiel), related to O.E hoh "hock." Heeled "provided with money" is 1880 in Amer.Eng., from earlier sense "furnished with a gun, armed" (1866), from still earlier sense "furnish (a gamecock) with a heel-like spur" (1562) To heel (of a dog) is from 1810 Heeler "unscrupulous political lackey" is U.S slang, 1877, from the notion of one who follows at 149 the heels of a political boss, no doubt coined with the image of a dog in mind Achilles' heel "only vulnerable spot" is from 1810 Heel-tap was originally (1688) one of the bits of leather that are stacked up to make a shoe heel; meaning "bit of liquor left in a glass or bottle" first recorded 1688; the exact connection is uncertain Down at heels (1732) refers to heels of boots or shoes worn down and the owner too poor to replace them horse O.E hors, from P.Gmc *khursa- (cf O.N hross, O.Fris hors, M.Du ors, Du ros, O.H.G hros, Ger Roß "horse"), of unknown origin, connected by some with PIE base *kurs-, source of L currere "to run" (see current) Replaced O.E eoh, from PIE *ekwo- "horse" (cf Gk hippos, L equus, O.Ir ech, Goth aihwa-, Skt aỗva-, all meaning "horse") In many other languages, as in O.E., this root has been lost in favor of synonyms, probably via superstitious taboo on uttering the name of an animal so important in I.E religion Used since at least 1391 of various devices or appliances which suggest a horse (e.g sawhorse) Slang for heroin is first attested 1950 Horseplay is from 1589 The belief that finding a horseshoe by chance is lucky is attested from late 14c Horse latitudes first attested 1777, the name of unknown origin, despite much speculation Dead horse as a figure for "something that has ceased to be useful" is attested from 1638 High horse originally (c.1380) was "war horse, charger;" fig sense in mount (one's) high horse "affect airs of superiority" is from 1782 The horse's mouth as a source of reliable information is from 1928, perhaps from the fact that a horse's age can be determined accurately by looking at its teeth To swap horses while crossing the river (a bad idea) is first attested 1864 in writings of Abraham Lincoln Horse sense is 1870, Amer.Eng colloquial, probably from the same association of "strong, large, coarse" found in horseradish hunker "to squat, crouch," 1720, Scottish, probably from O.N huka "to crouch," hoka, hokra "to crawl." Hunker down, Southern U.S dialectal phrase, popularized c.1965, from northern British hunker "haunch." jump (v.) 1530, perhaps onomatopoeic (cf bump); another theory derives it from words in Gallo-Romance dialects of southwestern France (cf jumba "to rock, to balance, swing," yumpa "to rock"), picked up during English occupation in Hundred Years 150 War Superseded native leap, bound, and spring in most senses Meaning "to attack" is from 1789; that of "to the sex act with" is from 1638 The noun is attested from 1552 Meaning "jazz music with a strong beat" first recorded 1937, in Count Basie's "One O'Clock Jump." To jump to a conclusion is from 1704 Jumpy "nervous" is from 1879 Jump suit "one-piece coverall modeled on those worn by paratroopers and skydivers" is from 1948 Jumping-rope is from 1805 Jump in a lake "go away and stop being a pest" attested from 1912 nail O.E negel "metal pin," nægl "fingernail (O.E handnægl), toenail," from P.Gmc *naglaz (cf O.H.G nagel, O.Fris neil, M.Du naghel, Ger Nagel "fingernail, small metal spike"), from PIE base *(o)nogh "nail" (cf Gk onyx, L unguis "nail, claw," O.C.S noga "foot," Lith naga "hoof," O.C.S noguti "nail, claw," Lith nagutis "fingernail," O.Ir ingen, O.Welsh eguin "nail, claw") The "fingernail" sense seems to be the original one The verb is O.E næglian, from P.Gmc *ganaglijanan Meaning "to catch, seize" is first recorded 1766 To bite one's nails as a sign of anxiety is attested from 1577 To hit the nail on the head "say or just the right thing" is first recorded 1529 pass (v.) c.1275 (trans.) "to go by (something)," also "to cross over," from O.Fr passer, from V.L *passare "to step, walk, pass," from L passus "step, pace" (see pace (1)) Intrans sense of "to go on, to move forward, make one's way" is attested from 1297 Fig sense of "to experience, undergo" (as in pass the time) is first recorded 1390 The meaning "to be thought to be something one is not" (esp in racial sense) is from 1935, from pass oneself off (as), first found 1809 The general verb sense of "to be accepted as equivalent" is from 1596 Sense of "to go through an examination successfully" is from 1429 Meaning "decline to something" is attested from 1869, originally in cards (euchre) In football, hockey, soccer, etc., the meaning "to transfer the ball or puck to another player" is from c.1865 Colloquial make a pass "offer an amorous advance" first recorded 1928, perhaps from a sporting sense Pass up "decline, refuse" is attested from 1896 Pass the buck is from 1865, said to be poker slang reference to the buck horn- 151 handled knife that was passed around to signify whose turn it was to deal Pass the hat "seek contributions" is from 1762 Pass-fail as a grading method is attested from 1959 poker (2) "card game," 1834, Amer.Eng., perhaps from the first element of Ger Pochspiel, name of a card game similar to poker, from pochen "to brag as a bluff," lit "to knock, rap" (see poke (v.)) Another version traces the word to Fr poque, also said to have been a card game resembling poker The earlier version of the game in Eng was called brag Slang poker face "deadpan" is from 1885 rock (v.1) "to sway," late O.E roccian, related to O.N rykkja "to pull, tear, move," Swed rycka "to pull, pluck," M.Du rucken, O.H.G rucchan, Ger rücken "to move jerkily." For musical senses, see rock (v.2) Rocking horse is first recorded 1724; rocking chair is from 1766 To rock the boat is attested from 1931 Rock-a-bye first recorded 1805 in nursery rhyme rock (n.) "stone," O.E rocc (in stanrocc "stone rock or obelisk"), also from O.N.Fr roque, from M.L rocca (767), from V.L *rocca, of uncertain origin, sometimes said to be from Celtic (cf Bret roch) Seems to have been used in M.E principally for rock formations as opposed to individual stones Meaning "precious stone, especially a diamond," is 1908, U.S slang Fig use for "sure foundation" (especially with ref to Christ) is from 1526 Meaning "crystalized cocaine" is attested from 1973, in West Coast U.S slang Rocks "ice cubes" is from 1946; slang meaning "testicles" is first recorded in phrase get (one's) rocks off "achieve intense satisfaction." On the rocks "ruined" is from 1889 Rock-bottom "lowest possible" is from 1856 Rock-salt is from 1707 Between a rock and a hard place first attested 1921, originally in Arizona Rock-ribbed is from 1776, originally of land; fig sense of "resolute" first recorded 1887 roost late O.E hrost "wooden framework of a roof, perch," from a Gmc source, related to O.S hrost, M.Du., Flem., Du roest, roost "framework of a roof," O.N hrot, Goth hrot "roof." Exact relationship and ulterior connections unknown The verb is from 1530 To rule the roost is recorded from 1769 152 Rubicon in phrase to cross (or pass) the Rubicon "take a decisive step," 1626, in ref to small stream to the Adriatic on the coast of northern Italy, which in ancient times formed part of the southern boundary of Cisalpine Gaul; crossed by Caesar when he left his province to attack Pompey shot O.E scot, sceot "an act of shooting, that which is discharged in shooting," from P.Gmc *skutan (cf O.N skutr, O.Fris skete, M.Du scote, Ger Schuß "a shot"), related to sceotan "to shoot" (see shoot) Meaning "discharge of a bow, missile," is from O.E gesceot; extended to other projectiles in M.E., and to sports (hockey, basketball, etc.) 1868 Another original meaning, "payment," is preserved in scot-free Meaning "drink of straight liquor" first attested 1676 Meaning "try, attempt" is from 1756; adj sense of "exhausted" is from 1930 Sense of "hypodermic injection" first attested 1904; fig phrase shot in the arm "stimulant" first recorded 1922 Meaning "remark meant to wound" is recorded from 1841; hence cheap shot (1973) To call the shots is first attested 1967; shot in the dark is from 1895 Big shot "important person" first recorded 1929; earlier great shot (1861) sit O.E sittan "to be seated, to seat oneself" (class V strong verb; past tense sæt, pp seten), from P.Gmc *setjanan (cf O.S sittian, O.N sitja, O.Fris sitta, M.Du sitten, Du zitten, O.H.G sizzan, Ger sitzen, Goth sitan), from PIE base *sed- "to sit" (see sedentary) In ref to a legislative assembly, from 1518 Meaning "to baby-sit" is recorded from 1966 Sitting room first recorded 1771 Slang sitting duck "easy target" first recorded 1944; lit sense is from 1867 (it is considered not sporting to shoot at one) Sitting pretty is from 1921 To sit on one's hands was originally "to withhold applause" (1926); later, "to nothing" (1959) To sit around "be idle, nothing" is 1915, Amer.Eng To sit out "not take part" is from 1626 skeleton 1578, from Mod.L sceleton "bones, bony framework of the body," from Gk skeleton soma "dried-up body, mummy," from neut of skeletos "dried-up," from skellein "dry up," from PIE base *skele- "to parch, whither" (cf Gk skleros "hard") The Gk word was borrowed in L.L (sceletus), hence Fr squelette, Sp esqueleto, It scheletro 153 The meaning "bare outline" is first recorded 1607; hence skeleton crew (1778), skeleton key, etc Phrase skeleton in the closet "source of secret shame to a person or family" popularized 1845 by Thackeray, though he likely didn't coin it swing (v.) O.E swingan "to rush, fling oneself," from P.Gmc *swenganan (cf O.S., O.H.G swingan, O.Fris swinga, Ger schwingen "to swing, swingle, oscillate") denoting "violent circulatory motion." The meaning "move freely back and forth" is first recorded 1545 The noun meaning "a stroke with a weapon" is from 1375; sense of "an apparatus that swings" is first recorded 1687 Meaning "shift of public opinion" is from 1899 The meaning "variety of big dance-band music with a swinging rhythm" is first recorded 1933, though the sense has been traced back to 1888; its heyday was from mid30s to mid-40s Swinging "uninhibited" dates from 1958; and swinger "person who is lively in an unrestrained way" is from 1965 Both had various other slang senses traceable to 1590s Swing shift first recorded 1941, typically p.m to midnight Phrase in full swing "in total effect or operation" (1570) is probably from bell-ringing table (n.) c.1175, "board, slab, plate," from O.Fr table "board, plank, writing table, picture" (11c.), and late O.E tabele, from W.Gmc *tabal (cf O.H.G zabel, Ger Tafel), both from L tabula "a board, plank, table," originally "small flat slab or piece" usually for inscriptions or for games, of uncertain origin, related to Umbrian tafle "on the board." The sense of "piece of furniture with the flat top and legs" first recorded c.1300 (the usual L word for this was mensa; O.E writers used bord) The meaning "arrangement of numbers or other figures for convenience" is recorded from c.1386 (e.g table of contents, 1460) Tablecloth is from 1467; tablespoon is 1763; tableware first recorded 1852 Fig phrase turn the tables (1634) is from backgammon (in O.E and M.E the game was called tables) Table talk is attested from 1569, translating L colloquia mensalis To tablehop is first recorded 1956 The adj phrase under-the-table "hidden from view" is recorded from 1949; under the table "passed out from excess drinking" is recorded from 1921 Table tennis is recorded from 1887 154 Uncle Tom "servile black man," 1922, somewhat inaccurately in ref to the humble, pious, but strong-willed main character in Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel, "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852) As a verb, attested from 1937 under (prep., adv.) O.E under, from P.Gmc *under- (cf O.Fris under, Du onder, O.H.G untar, Ger unter, O.N undir, Goth undar), from PIE *ndhero- "lower" (cf Skt adhah "below;" Avestan athara- "lower;" L infernus "lower," infra "below") Notion of "subordination" was present in O.E Also used in O.E as a preposition meaning "between, among," as still in under these circumstances, etc (though this may be an entirely separate root; see understand) Productive as a prefix in O.E times, as in Ger and Scand Under the table is from 1921 in the sense of "very drunk," 1940s in sense of "illegal." To get something under (one's) belt is from 1954; to keep something under (one's) hat "secret" is from 1885; to have something under (one's) nose "in plain sight" is from 1548; to speak under (one's) breath "in a low voice" is attested from 1832 To be under (someone's) thumb "entirely controlled" is recorded from 1754 up (adv.) O.E up, uppe, from P.Gmc *up- (cf O.Fris up, O.N upp, Dan., Du op, O.H.G uf, Ger auf, Goth iup "up, upward"), from PIE base *upo "up from below" (cf Skt upa "near, under, up to, on," Gk hypo "under, below," L sub "under") Meaning "exhilarated, happy" first attested 1815 Musical up tempo (adj.) is recorded from 1948 Up-and-coming "promising" is from 1848 Phrase on the up-(and-up) "honest, straightforward" first attested 1863, Amer.Eng Up the river "in jail" first recorded 1891, originally in reference to Sing Sing, which is up the Hudson from New York City To drive someone up the wall (1951) is from the notion of the behavior of lunatics or caged animals vote (n.) c.1460, from L votum "a vow, wish, promise, dedication," noun use of neut of votus, pp of vovere "to promise, dedicate" (see vow) The verb in the modern sense is attested from 1552; earlier it meant "to vow" to something (1533) wing (n.) c.1175, wenge, from O.N vængr "wing of a bird, aisle, etc." (cf Dan., Swed vinge "wing"), of unknown origin, perhaps from a P.Gmc *we-ingjaz and ult from PIE base *we- "blow" (cf O.E wawan "to blow;" see wind (n.)) Replaced O.E feðra 155 (pl.) "wings" (see feather) The meaning "either of two divisions of a political party, army, etc." is first recorded c.1400; theatrical sense is from 1790 Verbal phrase wing it (1885) is from theatrical slang sense of an actor learning his lines in the wings before going onstage, or else not learning them at all and being fed by a prompter in the wings The verb to wing "shoot a bird in the wing" is from 1802 The slang sense of to earn (one's) wings is 1940s, from the wing-shaped badges awarded to air cadets on graduation To be under (someone's) wing "protected by (someone)" is recorded from c.1230 Phrase on a wing and a prayer is title of a 1943 song about landing a damaged aircraft whip (v.) c.1250, wippen "flap violently," from P.Gmc *wipp- (cf Dan vippe "to raise with a swipe," M.Du., Du wippen "to swing," O.H.G wipf "swing, impetus"), from PIE *wib- "move quickly." The noun is attested from c.1325 In parliamentary use from 1850 (the v3rb in this sense is recorded from 1742), from the sense in fox-hunting The parliamentary whip's duty originally was to ensure the attendance of party members on important occasions The cookery sense is from 1673 Whipping boy first recorded 1647; whipping block is from c.1877 Whip-saw is attested from 1538; whip snake first recorded 1774 156 Trang web trực tuyến từ điển Meriam-Webster Định nghóa Idiom trang web the Free Dictionary 157 Trang web trực tuyến từ điển Oxford Trang tra cứu từ từ ñieån Random House 158