Problems and solutions in teaching speaking to intermediate learners at foreign language centre of ho chi minh city university of education

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES DO THI SONG TUYEN PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS IN TEACHING SPEAKING TO INTERMEDIATE LEARNERS AT FOREIGN LANGUAGE CENTRE OF HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (TESOL) Supervisor Dr LE THI THANH THU Ho Chi Minh City, 2005 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY I hereby certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS IN TEACHING SPEAKING TO INTERMEDIATE LEARNERS AT FOREIGN LANGUAGE CENTRE OF HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION in terms of the statement of Requirements for Thesis in Master’s Programs issued by the Higher Degree Committee Ho Chi Minh City, December 4, 2005 i RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS I hereby state that I, Do Thi Song Tuyen, being the candidate for the degree of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for care, loan and reproduction of theses Ho Chi Minh City, December 14, 2005 DO THI SONG TUYEN ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Dr LE THI THANH THU, for her guidance and encouragement through valuable advice while my thesis was carried out Without her help, this work would have never been done I would also like to thank all teachers and learners at Foreign Language Centre of Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Branch who were willing to respond to my questionnaires and gave me permission to use their information I owe a great deal to my lecturers for their helpful instructions during the Master course Last, but not least, I wish to thank all my friends, colleagues and family for their help and moral support, which enabled me to complete this thesis iii ABSTRACT The study examined problems associated with the current practice of teaching speaking to intermediate learners at Foreign Language Centre of Ho Chi Minh City University of Education (Branch 4) 15 teachers who were in charge of all intermediate classes and 98 intermediate learners there were given parallel questionnaires to fill Their responses were then subjected to descriptive and quantitative analysis The findings revealed that teachers followed the traditional way of presenting content of passage texts by reading aloud, explaining and questioning learners, that they were not flexible in exploiting dialogue and passage texts for oral practice, that there was a lack of communicative activities, oral practices by games, songs, quizzes, and group work, that time for learners to interact with each other did not outweigh that for learners to interact with teachers, and that teachers and learners disagreed about the ways of correcting mistakes Based on the findings, suggestions for better practice were made The study therefore provides not only teachers who are in charge of intermediate classes at Foreign Language Centre of Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Branch but also teachers of intermediate classes at the other branches of Foreign Language Centre of Ho Chi Minh City University of Education and those who are interested in teaching oral English with possible improvements on the practice of teaching speaking iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Certificate of originality i Retention and use of the thesis .ii Acknowledgements iii Abstract iv Table of contents .v List of tables ix Abbreviations and symbols .x Chapter I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study 1.1.1 English teaching in Vietnam in recent years .1 1.1.2 English teaching at FLC of HCMC University of Education 1.1.2.1 The need for improvement in teaching speaking to intermediate learners at FLC of University of Education 1.1.2.2 Teaching material .4 1.2 Aims of thesis 1.3 Overview of the chapters .6 Chapter II LITERATURE REVIEW .7 2.1 Teaching of speaking 2.1.1 Speaking class objectives 2.1.2 Stages of teaching speaking 10 2.1.2.1 The presentation / introduction stage 10 2.1.2.1.1 Presenting new language use through texts .11 2.1.2.1.2 Presenting new language use through activities 12 2.1.2.2 The practice stage .13 2.1.2.3 The production stage 15 2.2 Classroom interaction 18 2.2.1 What is classroom interaction? 18 2.2.2 The need for interaction in speaking classes 20 2.2.3 Factors influencing oral classroom interaction 21 v 2.2.3.1 Influence of pre-existing personality structure 22 2.2.3.1.1 Self-esteem .22 2.2.3.1.2 Anxiety and inhibition 23 2.2.3.1.3 Motivation 25 2.2.3.2 Influences of what happens in a classroom 27 2.2.3.2.1 Classroom atmosphere 27 2.2.3.2.2 Speaking activities 29 2.3 Summary 30 Chapter III METHODOLOGY 32 3.1 Subjects 32 3.2 Instruments 33 3.2.1 Questionnaire construction 33 3.2.1.1 Questionnaire for teachers 34 3.2.1.2 Questionnaire for learners 35 3.2.2 Administration 36 3.2.3 Data collection 37 Chapter IV DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 38 4.1 Data analysis methodology 38 4.2 Teachers’ responses 39 4.2.1 Characteristics 39 4.2.2 Ways of presenting lessons .40 4.2.3 Speaking activities 41 4.2.4 Ways of conducting speaking activities 43 4.2.5 Factors affecting learners’ oral practice 44 4.2.6 Difficulties learners often face with communicative activities 46 4.2.7 Time for learners to interact with teachers and with friends 47 4.2.8 Ways of correcting speaking mistakes 48 4.2.9 Summary 49 4.3 Learners’ responses 51 4.3.1 Characteristics 51 4.3.2 Preferences for speaking activities 52 vi 4.3.3 Preferences for ways of conducting speaking activities 53 4.3.4 Factors affecting learners’ oral practice 54 4.3.5 Difficulties learners often face with communicative activities 56 4.3.6 Preferences for time to interact with teachers and with friends.57 4.3.7 Preferences for ways of correcting speaking mistakes .57 4.3.8 Summary 58 4.4 Comparisons between teachers and learners’ responses 59 4.4.1 Speaking activities 59 4.4.2 Ways of conducting speaking activities 60 4.4.3 Factors affecting learners’ oral practice 61 4.4.4 Difficulties learners often face with communicative activities 62 4.4.5 Time for learners to interact with teachers and with friends 62 4.4.6 Ways of correcting speaking mistakes 62 4.5 Findings .63 Chapter V SUGGESTIONS 68 5.1 Letting learners learn through reading and using passage texts for further oral practice 68 5.2 Varying techniques in exploiting dialogue and passage texts for oral practice .69 5.3 Supplying more communicative activities 70 5.3.1 Discussion 71 5.3.2 Role-play 73 5.3.3 Problem-solving activities 73 5.4 Bringing games, songs and quizzes to oral class commonly .74 5.4.1 Games 74 5.4.2 Songs 75 5.4.3 Quizzes 75 5.5 Conducting more group work 75 5.6 Giving learners more time to interact with each other 77 5.7 Reminding learners not to consider mistakes very important in speaking .77 5.8 Limitation of the study .77 vii 5.9 Suggestion for further research .78 BIBLIOGRAPHY 79 APPENDICES .83 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Profile of teachers Table 4.2: Teachers’ responses on ways of presenting lessons Table 4.3: Teachers’ responses on speaking activities Table 4.4: Teachers’ responses on ways of conducting speaking activities Table 4.5: Teachers’ views of factors affecting learners’ oral practice Table 4.6: Teachers’ views of difficulties that learners often face with communicative activities Table 4.7: Teachers’ responses on time for learners to interact with teachers and with friends Table 4.8: Teachers’ responses on ways of correcting speaking mistakes Table 4.9: Profile of learners Table 4.10: Learners’ preferences for speaking activities Table 4.11: Learners’ preferences for ways of conducting speaking activities Table 4.12: Learners’ responses on factors affecting their oral practice Table 4.13: Learners’ responses on difficulties with communicative activities Table 4.14: Learners’ preferences for time to interact with teachers and with friends Table 4.15: Learners’ preferences for ways correcting speaking mistakes ix ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS CUP : Cambridge University Press OUP : Oxford University Press EFL : English as a foreign language FLC : foreign language centre HCMC : Ho Chi Minh City x Chapter I INTRODUCTION The thesis is to examine problems associated with the teaching of speaking to intermediate learners at Foreign Language Centre of HCMC University of Education (Branch 4) and to provide solutions for better practice This introductory chapter gives a description of the background of the study, states the aims of the thesis, and presents the overview of all the chapters 1.1 Background of the study 1.1.1 English teaching in Vietnam in recent years Since 1975, the year of the reunification of our country, English has been teaching as a compulsory school subject Vietnam’s open-door policy, which came into existence in 1986, has brought about great changes in lots of aspects The free market-oriented economy attracted a good deal of foreign investment and a considerable number of English-speaking visitors came to Vietnam as tourists or businessmen Social demands of broader communication and cooperation have therefore forged the emergence of English as the most important foreign language As a result, many centres of foreign languages were founded in order to meet the need to study English as communication of many people In recent years, more and more people tend to go abroad to study, to work With English as an international language, English learning is in great demand Moreover, English proficiency is now a vital requirement for employment and promotion Many people, especially young ones find it necessary to equip themselves with good knowledge of English They, then spend their time after work or school on evening classes to consolidate, improve or develop their ability of English Most of them have studied English at school or college However, when they studied English there, their speaking and listening skills were neglected due to written examinations From this, in order to satisfy the 10 Scarcella, R.C., & Oxford, R.L 1992 The Tapestry of Language Learning: The Individual in Communicative Classroom Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers Shumin, K 1997 Factors to Consider: Developing Adult EFL Students’ Speaking Abilities Forum Soars, J & Soars L 1986 Headway (Intermediate) Oxford: OUP Stern, H.H 1992 Issues and Options in Language Teaching Oxford: OUP Stevick, E.W 1976 Memory, Meaning & Method: Some Psychological Perfectives on Language Learning Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers Tarone E., & Yule, G 1989 Focus on the Language Learners: Approaches to Identifying and Meeting the needs of Second Language Learners Oxford: OUP Willing, K.1988 Learning Styles in Adult Migrant Education Sydney: NSW Adult Migrant Education Service www daveseslcafe.com Young, D J (Ed.) 1999 Affects in Foreign Language and Second Language Learning: A Practical Guide to Creating a Low-Anxiety Classroom Atmosphere Boston: McGrawHill 82 Questions Choices 78 APPENDIX 3.1 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS This questionnaire is intended to examine speaking activities for intermediate learners and teachers’ views of factors affecting learners’ oral practice in class at foreign language centre of HCMC University of Education Your cooperation will be highly appreciated The answers will help us research and find out ways for better practice of teaching speaking Part I Please provide us with your personal information by ticking the appropriate box [ ] Gender: - Male [ ] - Female [ ] Qualifications: - B.A [ ] - M.A [ ] Time of teaching English: - under years [ ] - from to 10 years [ ] - over 10 years [ ] Part II Please read the following statements (items -13) and tick at the appropriate box that best describes frequencies of speaking activities you conduct in class Always Often Sometimes Never I teach new language use separately from presenting the content of passage texts I present the content of passage texts by reading aloud, explaining and questioning learners I teach new language use through dialogue texts I exploit the passage texts for oral practice of question and answer 83 Choices 79 Questions Choices Always Often Sometimes Never I exploit dialogue texts for oral practice of controlled roleplay I set oral drills for learners to get used to new language use 10 I set activities for learners to apply newly-acquired language meaningfully (e.g to talk about themselves, life…) 11 I set communicative activities for learners to express themselves freely 12 I bring games, songs, quizzes to oral class 13 I conduct speaking activities in pairs 14 I conduct speaking activities in groups 15 I conduct speaking activities with the whole class The following statements (questions 16 – 20) are about factors affecting learners’ oral practice in class Please decide ( ) if you agree or disagree Strongly agree Agree No opinion Disagree 16 Learners find it easier to talk in a relaxed, friendly classroom atmosphere 17 Learners not dare to speak up because they think their English is not as good as the others’ 18 Learners are not used to speaking in a classroom setting 19 Learners fear making a mistake when they speak English in class 80 20 The teacher has great influence on learners’ interest of learning speaking Questions 84 For the following questions (21– 23), please tick at the most appropriate choice or fill in the blank 21 What is the difficulty that learners often face with communicative activities? a grammar b vocabulary c ideas d others: ………………………………………………………… 22 In speaking classes, with whom learners spend more time interacting? a teacher b friends 23 When learners speak, you often correct them… a immediately, in front of everyone? b later, at the end of the activity, in font of everyone? c later, in private? 85 Thank you! Choices 81 APPENDIX 3.2 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR LEARNERS This questionnaire is intended to examine intermediate learners’ preferences for speaking activities and factors affecting learners’ oral practice in class at foreign language centre of HCMC University of Education Your cooperation will be highly appreciated The answers will help us research and find out ways for better practice of teaching speaking Part I Please provide us with your personal information by ticking at the appropriate box [ ] Gender: - Male [ ] - Female [ ] Age: - under 18 [ ] - from 18 to 22 [ ] - over 22 [ ] Occupation: - student [ ] - working person [ ] Part II From questions - 12, please tick at one choice for each item that best describes your preferences for speaking activities Most Much A little No I like oral practice of question and answer based on the passage texts I like oral practice of controlled role-play based on the dialogue texts I like to get used to new language use through oral drills I like to activities that require me to apply newlyacquired language meaningfully (e.g to talk about myself, life…) I like to communicative activities that allow me to express myself freely 82 86 Questions I like to learn speaking by games, songs, quizzes 10 I like to practise speaking activities in pairs 11 I like to practise speaking activities in groups 12 I like to practise speaking activities with the whole class Please read the following statements (questions 13 – 17) about factors affecting your oral practice in class and decide ( ) if you agree or disagree Strongly agree Agree No opinion Disagree 13 I find it easier to talk in a relaxed and friendly classroom atmosphere 14 I not dare to speak up because I think my English is not as good as the others’ 15 I am not used to speaking in a classroom setting 16 I fear making a mistake when I speak English in class 17 The teacher has great influence on my interest of learning speaking Supply the appropriate choice or fill in the blank for the following questions 18 What is the difficulty that you often face with communicative activities? a grammar b vocabulary c ideas d other: ………………………………………………… 19 In speaking classes, with whom you like to spend more time interacting? a teacher b friends 20 When you speak, you want to be corrected… a immediately, in front of everyone? b later, at the end of the activity, in font of everyone? c later, in private? 83 Thank you! Questions 87 Choices 84 APPENDIX 3.3 BẢNG KHẢO SÁT Bảng nhằm thu nhận thông tin họat động rèn kỹ nói tìm hiểu ý kiến quý Thầy Cô yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến việc học nói học viên trung cấp Trung Tâm Ngọai Ngữ Đại Học Sư Phạm TPHCM Chúng đánh giá cao hợp tác Thầy Cô Câu trả lời quý Thầy Cô giúp nghiên cứu tìm phương cách giảng dạy môn nói tốt Phần I Xin quý Thầy Cô vui lòng cung cấp cho thông tin cá nhân cách đánh dấu vào ô thích hợp Giới tính: - Nam [ ] - Nữ [ ] Học vị: - Đại học [ ] - Cao học [ ] Thời gian giảng dạy tiếng Anh: - năm [ ] - từ đến 10 năm [ ] - 10 năm [ ] Phần II Câu đến 15 tìm hiểu cách thức thực họat động dạy nói, quý Thầy Cô vui lòng chọn ( ) câu trả lời với câu hỏi Luôn Thường Thỉnh thỏang Không Thầy/Cô giới thiệu cấu trúc riêng với giới thiệu nội dung đọc Thầy/Cô giới thiệu nội dung đọc cách vừa đọc vừa giải thích, sau đặt câu hỏi cho học viên trả lời Thầy/Cô giới thiệu cấu trúc qua ngữ cảnh đàm thoại Thầy/Cô cho học viên nói bằøng cách hỏi trả lời câu hỏi nội dung đọc Thầy/Cô cho học viên nói bằøng cách đóng vai nhân vật đàm thoại 85 Cââu hỏ i Trả lời 88 Luôn Thường Thỉnh thỏang Không Thầy/Cô đưa hoạt động nói nhằm giúp học viên làm quen với cấu trúc tiếng Anh 10 Thầy/Cô cho học viên áp dụng cấu trúc học để nói thật thân, sống 11 Thầy/Cô đưa hoạt động cho học viên nói tự (không theo cấu trúc qui định) 12 Thầy/Cô cho học viên thực hành họat động nói qua trò chơi, hát, câu đố vui 13 Thầy/Cô cho học viên thực hành họat động nói theo đôi 14 Thầy/Cô cho học viên thực hành họat động nói theo nhóm 15 Thầy/Cô cho học viên thực hành họat động nói chung lớp Câu 16 đến 20 tìm hiểu yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến việc học nói học viên Xin Thầy Cô cho biết ý kiến cách đánh chọn ( ) Rất đồng ý Đồng ý Không ý kiến Không đồng ý 16 Học viên dễ nói tiếng Anh bầu không khí thỏai mái thân mật lớp học 17 Học viên không dám nói lớp nghó khả tiếng Anh hơ n bạn 18 Học viên không quen nói ngữ cảnh lớp học 19 Khi nói tiếng Anh lớp, học viên thường sợ sai 20 Giáo viên làm cho học viên thích học nói 86 Câu hỏi Trả lời Cââu hỏ i Trả lời 89 Xin vui lòng chọn ( ) câu trả lời thích hợp câu hỏi ghi ý kiến quý Thầy Cô vào phần để trống 21 Khó khăn mà học viên thường gặp họat động nói tự gì? a kiến thức ngữ pháp b vốn từ vựng c ý tưởng d khác:………………………………………… 22 Trong học nói, học viên nói tiếng Anh với nhiều hơn? a giáo viên b bạn lớp 23 Khi học viên nói, có sai sót Thầy/Cô thường sửa lỗi… a lúc nói, trước lớp? b sau, lớp kết thúc họat động nói, trước lớp? c sau, riêng với cá nhân mắc lỗi? Xin cám ơn! 90 87 APPENDIX 3.4 BẢNG KHẢO SÁT Bảng nhằm tìm hiểu ý thích học viên họat động dạy nói yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến việc học nói học viên trung cấp Trung Tâm Ngọai Ngữ Đại Học Sư Phạm TPHCM Chúng đánh giá cao ý kiến bạn Câu trả lời bạn giúp nghiên cứu tìm phương cách giảng dạy môn nói tốt Phần I Xin bạn vui lòng cung cấp cho thông tin cá nhân cách đánh dấu vào ô thích hợp Giới tính: - Nam [ ] - Nữ [ ] Tuổi: - 18 [ ] - từ 18 đến 22 [ ] - 22 [ ] Nghề nghiệp: - học sinh/ sinh viên [ ] - đã/ làm việc [ ] Phần II Câu đến câu 12 tìm hiểu ý thích bạn họat động nói lớp Bạn vui lòng chọn ( ) câu trả lời thích hợp với câu hỏi Nhiều Nhiều Một chút Không Bạn thích thực hành nói cách hỏi trả lời câu hỏi dự a vào nội dung đọc Bạn thích thực hành nói cách đóng vai nhân vật đàm thoại Bạn thích hoạt động nói nhằm giúp bạn làm quen với cấu trúc tiếng Anh Bạn thích áp dụng cấu trúc học để nói thật thân, sống ï… Bạn thích họat động cho phép bạn nói tự (không nói theo cấu trúc qui định) Bạn thích học nói qua trò chơi, hát, câu đố vui 88 Cââu hỏi Trả lời 91 10 Bạn thích thực hành họat động nói theo đôi (bạn nói với bạn khác) 11 Bạn thích thực hành họat động nói theo nhóm 12 Bạn thích thực hành họat động nói chung lớp Câu 13 đến 17 tìm hiểu yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến việc học nói bạn Bạn vui lòng cho biết ý kiến cách đánh chọn ( ) Rất đồng ý Đồng ý Không ý kiến Không đồng ý 13 Bạn dễ nói tiếng Anh bầu không khí thỏai mái thân mật lớp học 14 Bạn không dám nói lớp nghó khả tiếng Anh bạn 15 Bạn không quen nói ngữ cảnh lớp học 16 Khi nói tiếng Anh lớp, bạn thường sợ sai 17 Giáo viên làm cho bạn thích học nói Chọn câu trả lời thích hợp câu hỏi điền vào phần để trống 18 Khó khăn mà bạn thường gặp họat động nói tự làgì? a kiến thức ngữ pháp b vốn từ vựng c ý tưởng d khác:……………………………………… 19 Tong học nói, bạn thích nói tiếng Anh với nhiều hơn? a giáo viên b bạn lớp 20 Khi nói, bạn muốn thầy cô sửa lỗi… a lúc nói, trước lớp? 89 b sau, lớp kết thúc họat động nói, trước lớp? c sau, góp ý riêng với bạn? Xin cám ơn! 90 APPENDIX 5.1 93 Unit 23 MIGRATION One of the greatest mysteries of nature is the instinct to migrate Every year millions of creatures feel the need to move for one reason or another Most of us have seen the arrival or departure of migrating flocks of birds Migration, however, is not confined to birds, but can be seen in retiles (for example turtles, frogs), insects (butterflies, locusts), fish (eels, salmon, tunny ) and mammals (reindeer, seals, lemmings, whales, bats) Many of these creatures succeed in navigating over long distances How exactly they manage to this still remains a mysteries There are several possibilities They may navigate by using one or more of the following: The sun The stars The Earth's magnetic field (When a small bar magnet is attached to a pigeon, it is unable to navigate.) A sense of smell Geographical features (Birds flying from North Africa to France seem to follow coastlines and valleys.) Changes in temperature (Salmon can detect a change in water temperature as small as 0.03°C.) Sound (Whales and bats seem to use sonar.) Experiments suggests that these navigational abilities are partly instinctive In one famous experiment a young seabird from the island of Skokholm, off the Welsh coast, was taken across the Atlantic by plane to Boston, 5100 km away It was released, and was back in its nest twelve and a half days later The Arctic Tern This seabird holds the record for long-distance migration Arctic Tern breed in Northern Canada, Greenland, Northern Europe, Siberia and Alaska In late August they set off on a 17,500 km journey which takes them south, past the West coasts of Europe and Africa to the tip of Southern Africa (14,000 km in 90 days) They then fly round to the Indian Ocean and down to Antarctica, where they spend the Antarctic summer On the way back they sometimes make a complete circuit of Antarctica before returning to their breeding-grounds The round trip is over 35,000 km in eight months (240 km a day when they are flying) The Arctic Tern sees more hours of daylight than any other creature, because it experiences two summers a year, one in the Arctic region, and one 91 in the Antarctic These regions have almost constant daylight in summer One tern, which was ringed in Norway as a chick, died in exactly the same place, twenty-seven years later Presumably, it had made the journey twenty-seven times The European Freshwater Eel European Freshwater Eel, which look like snakes but are really fish, begin and end their lives in the Sargasso Sea, southeast of Bermuda As eggs and larvae they drift for three years towards Europe, changing both shape and colour as they reach the fresh-water estuaries of European rivers They spend the next nine to nineteen years in rivers, streams, lakes and ponds As they approach old age they seem to have an unexplained compulsion to return to the Sargasso Sea to breed Many eels which have found their way into ponds and lakes come out of the water and travel overland, gliding through damp grass When they reach the sea, they make their way to the Sargasso, where they breed and die No eels make the journey twice The eel has an acute sense of smell, which is used for navigation in local waters, but inherited memory seems the only explanation for their migration to the Sargasso The Lemming The Brown Lemming is a small mammal (10–18 cm long) found all over Northern Canada, Scandinavia and Northern Russian Lemmings usually make short, annual migrations in spring, travelling by night and feeding and sleeping by day Every three or four years, however, they make much longer migrations in large numbers The lemming population seems to change over a three or four year cycle, from one lemming per four hectares to between 400 and 700 lemmings per four hectares Migration seems to be a method of population control, and is most spectacular in the well known ‘mass suicides’, where thousands of lemmings plunge over cliff tops into the sea, and swim till they die of exhaustion These ‘mass suicides’ only occur infrequently, and then only in Norway where mountains touch the sea Nobody knows what makes them it, but there are two theories One is that migrating lemmings cross rivers and lakes and can't tell the difference between a river and the sea The other, more interesting theory is that they are migrating towards ancient breeding-grounds which existed beneath the North Sea millions of years ago, when the sea-level was lower 92