A critical review of current el testing practices at thai nguyen lower secondary school

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY - HOCHIMINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES A CRITICAL REVIEW OF CURRENT EL TESTING PRACTICES AT THAI NGUYEN LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOL SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF TESOL TR N NG KHÁNH LINH Supervisor: Dr V TH PH NHA TRANG September 2005 NG ANH CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY I certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF CURRENT EL TESTING PRACTICES AT THAI NGUYEN LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOL in terms of the statement of Requirements for Theses in Master’s Programmes issued by the Higher Degree Committee Nha Trang, September 10th, 2005 TR N NG KHÁNH LINH II RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS I hereby state that I, TR N NG KHÁNH LINH, being the candidate for the degree of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for the care, loan or reproduction of theses Nha Trang, September 10th, 2005 TR N NG KHÁNH LINH III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Dr V Th Ph ng Anh, who provided insightful discussions, valuable comments, criticisms, and support in the preparation and completion of this thesis My special thanks go to the organizers of this master course, Mr Lê H u Ph c, Head of the Department of Post Graduate Studies of Ho Chi Minh City University of Social Sciences and Humanities; and Mr Nguy n Hu nh t, Head of the Department of English Linguistics and Literature of the university; and their staff members This thesis would never have been possible without the permission and financial support from Mr Lê Thanh Bình, Rector of Nha Trang Teacher Training College; and Mr Hà V n H nh, Head of the Foreign Language Department of the college I would like to express my thanks to these people I also wish to thank all the staff members at the English Section, Nha Trang Teacher Training College for their help and moral support, in particular Ms Nguy n Th H ng Liên, and Ms oàn Linh Chi I am also grateful to Mr Nguy n Cao Phúc, the Foreign Language Specialist of Khanh Hoa DOET; the English language staff; and the Grade-6 students of Thai Nguyen Lower Secondary School, who heartily participated in the research Thanks also to all my friends, especially Thanh Nhã, Lan Anh, ng Nguyên, Hoàng Mai, H nh Huy n, who have continually encouraged me to complete my study My warmest thanks go to my mother-in-law and my husband, who took all the family burden during my long absence from home with great understanding, and whose love has backed me to attain to my aim Last, but not least, I especially owe my little son for not giving him adequate motherly care during his infancy to finish my study in Ho Chi Minh City His sacrifice makes a great contribution to the completion of my post graduate course in general and of this thesis in particular IV LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CLA : Communicative Language Ability CLT : Communicative Language Teaching DOET : Department of Education and Training EL : English Language ESL : English as a Second Language LSS : Lower Secondary School MOET : Ministry of Education and Training MSOET : Municipal Service of Education and Training S : Student T : Teacher TLU : Target Language Use TMF : Test Method Facet V ABSTRACT English language teaching at LSSs in Khanh Hoa has undergone a reform with the promotion of the CLT since 1995 and the use of new text books in large scale since 2002 During the renovation much attention has been paid to new teaching techniques but little care has been taken over the testing aspect of the new teaching methodology This thesis takes a critical look at current English language testing practices at one of the best schools in Khanh Hoa: Thai Nguyen LSS The purpose of the thesis is to find if the neglect of the testing aspect has made testing unable to cater for the course objectives; and, if it is the case, how the backward testing has affected the school’s teaching practices To this, a study was carried out to investigate the school’s testing practices at Grade Six - the grade on which the new textbook has been used for three years, an adequate time for any evaluation All aspects of the testing reality were examined: (a) the teachers’ perception of the role and principles of communicative language testing; (b) their testing practices (both formal and informal); and (c) their students’ communicative language ability The methods employed in the investigation includes: (1) reference of relevant documents for the course’s TLU domain and TLU tasks; (2) a survey on how well the staff understand what it means to test language ability communicatively, with questionnaires given out to staff members having experience in the new teaching program; (3) class observation for the teachers’ informal testing practice and the washback effect of their testing practices on their teaching, with observation sheets tailored to highlight the evaluation criteria; (4) a systematic analysis of the test papers used during the first semester of academic year 2004-2005; and (5) the assessment of the communicative language ability of the school’s students - the products of the current teaching-testing practices - through their performance on a communicative achievement test designed by the researcher The results of the study shows that communicative testing has NOT been in effect at Thai Nguyen LSS, the pioneering school in the province’s teaching reform Even worse, the backward testing practices have caused negative washback to the school’s teaching: the teachers are either conducting grammar-based classes or VI giving extra-curricular evening classes to prepare the students for the tests The problems are defined mainly as the consequence of the disorientation of the DOET and MSOET through their test specifications and term-test design Besides, it is the staff’s superficial understanding of Communicative Language Testing that results in their misleading informal testing practice The thesis, therefore, makes suggestions to all the stake-holders of the provincial education for a reform in language testing practices at LSSs in general and at Thai Nguyen LSS in particular The recommendations of the study are believed to contribute to a comprehensive reform in the provincial teaching and help to solve the critical problem of uncontrollable extra-curricular classes in the province VII Table of contents INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 1 The problem Aims of the research and overview of the thesis CHAPTER BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH 1.1 Description of Grade - English program at Thai Nguyen LSS 1.1.1 Teaching approach, course objectives, and time allocation 1.1.2 Course book and additional teaching materials 1.1.3 Teaching and learning environment 10 1.1.4 Test administration 10 1.2 The English Language Teaching Staff and the Examination Authority 11 1.2.1 The English Language Teaching Staff 11 1.2.2 The examination authority 12 1.3 The students 12 1.4 Summary 12 CHAPTER REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE 13 2.1 The importance of testing in language teaching and learning 13 2.2 The Communicative Approach to Language Testing 15 2.3 Features of communicative language tests 17 2.4 Communicative Language Ability 20 2.5 Bachman’s framework of Test Method Facets (TMF) 23 2.6 Summary 26 CHAPTER METHODOLOGY 27 3.1 Research questions 27 3.2 Research design 28 VIII 3.2.1 For course orientation and course objectives 28 3.2.2 For the school teachers’ perceptions and their teaching-testing practices 29 3.2.3 For the evaluation of test qualities 30 3.2.4 For the students’ Communicative Language Ability 31 3.3 The study 31 3.3.1 Subjects 32 3.3.2 Instruments 33 3.3.2.1 Guiding documents from the course designers and the education authorities 33 3.3.2.2 Survey questionnaires 33 3.3.2.3 Class observation sheets 34 3.3.2.4 The progressive and summative tests in practice at the school 35 3.3.2.5 The communicative test 36 3.3.3 Data collection procedure 38 3.3.3.1 Instruments administration 38 3.3.3.2 Scoring of test results 39 3.4 Summary 39 CHAPTER DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 40 4.1 Analysis of guiding documents on the new teaching program 40 4.2 Analysis of the teachers’ feedbacks on the questionnaires 42 4.3 Analysis of class observation results 47 4.4 Analysis of the school’s test papers 52 4.5 Analysis of the sample’s performance on the communicative test 61 CHAPTER SYNTHESIS OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 66 5.1 Summary of findings from each research method 66 IX 5.1.1 Findings from documents on new orientation of English language teaching 66 5.1.2 Findings from the teachers’ responses of the questionnaire items 67 5.1.3 Findings from class observation 67 5.1.4 Findings from the analysis of the school’s test papers 70 5.1.5 Findings from the students’ performance on the communicative test 71 5.2 Towards a conclusion 72 5.2.1 The school’s effort to renovate its teaching of English 72 5.2.2 The backwardness of the school’s testing practices 73 5.2.3 The harmful washback the backward testing leaves on the school’s teaching 74 5.2.4 The student’s lack of Communicative Language Ability 75 5.2.5 The deficiency of the new course books 75 5.3 Delimitations and Limitations of the study 76 5.4 Suggestions and Recommendations 77 X B PH N ÁNH GIÁ: thành công c a ti t d y c ánh giá thang Xin th y / khoanh trịn m ánh giá c a I Ph m - theo t ng tiêu chí c th ng pháp gi ng d y qu n lý l p: i dung ánh giá M c tiêu ti t d y Gi i thi u ng li u c t c m c tiêu ti t d y r t rõ ã c th c hi n r t thành công c tiêu ti t d y r t rõ ã c th c hi n ch a thành công l m Ti t d y có m c tiêu rõ ràng nh ng ch a c th c hi n thành công c tiêu ti t d y ch a rõ Ti t d y khơng có m c tiêu c th Ngôn ng c a vào ng c nh r t rõ, trình bày sáng t o, k t c u h p lý, ví d minh h a hay giúp HS có th nh n c ý ngh a n i dung ngơn ng l n hình th c ngôn ng , nêu b t c nh ng n i dung quan tr ng, t o c s liên h ki n th c Ngôn ng c ng c nh hóa t t, trình bày h p lý, có ví d ý ngh a n i dung ngơn ng hình th c ngơn ng , nêu HS nh n bi t c c nh ng n i dung Ngôn ng c ng c nh hóa GV gi i thích ý ngh a n i dung ngôn ng th c ngôn ng thông qua m t s ví d 3.Rèn luy n hình Ng c nh ch a rõ, trình bày ch ch a h p lý, nghèo ví d GV ph i thuy t gi ng thêm v ý ngh a n i dung hình th c ngôn ng Thi u ng c nh GV sa vào gi i thi u gi i thích hình th c ngơn ng GV t p trung luy n kh n ng s d ng ngôn ng h n gi i thích luy n hình th c ngơn ng GV t p trung vào c vi c s d ng ngôn ng l n hình th c ngơn ng GV t p trung vào hình th c ngơn ng h n vi c s d ng ngôn ng GV s d ng th i gian ch y u vào vi c gi i thi u luy n t p hình th c ngơn ng GV s d ng toàn b th i gian vào vi c gi i thi u luy n t p hình th c ngơn ng GV s d ng thành công nhi u ho t a HS phát tri n k n ng t ng h p phát tri n k n ng t ng h p c a HS ngôn ng 4.Rèn luy n n ng GV có s d ng nhi u ho t GV s d ng nhi u ho t ng h p c a HS GV s d ng vài ho t ng h p c a HS Lo i hình ho t a HS ng n ng khác ng khác ng khác nh ng ch a nh m n phát tri n k n ng ng khác nh ng không nh m n phát tri n k n ng n phát tri n k n ng t ng h p u GV không nh m 91 i dung ánh giá c t c m Có s cân i gi a ho t ng GV-HS HS-HS HS có nhi u c h i i b ng tiêng Anh 5.Ho t ng giao ti p Có s cân i gi a ho t b ng tiêng Anh Có ho t ti ng Anh 6.Môi tr ng th c hành ti ng Qu n lý l p h c c giao ti p v i c giao ti p v i b ng ng GV-HS HS-HS HS có c ng HS-HS h n GV-HS HS có c h i Có ho t ng HS-HS h n GV-HS HS có r t c ng ti ng Anh Ch có ho t c giao ti p h i h i c giao ti p v i ng GV-HS HS khơng có c h i giao ti p v i b ng ti ng Anh GV s d ng ti ng Anh m t cách d hi u, t o c m t môi tr Anh t t, lôi cu n HS vào vi c giao ti p b ng ti ng Anh GV th HS ng xuyên s d ng ti ng Anh trì GV có c g ng s d ng ti ng Anh trì ng s d ng ti ng c giao ti p b ng ti ng Anh v i c giao ti p b ng ti ng Anh v i HS GV s d ng ti ng Vi t nhi u h n ti ng Anh không c g ng t n d ng c h i d ng ti ng Anh l p GV ch s d ng ti ng Vi t, không khuy n khích HS s d ng ti ng Anh Phân b th i gian r t h p lý, huy ng cs o c khơng khí sơi n i su t ti t h c Phân b th i gian h p lý, huy ng không khí sơi n i su t tiêt h c Phân b th i gian h p lý, huy c không nhàm chán c s ng tham gia c a t t c HS, t o cs Phân b th i gian ch a th t h p lý, ch a huy HS, khơng khí l p h c ôi lúc n ng n Phân b th i gian thi u h p lý, ch huy HS, ti t h c nhàm chán 92 tham gia tích c c c a t t c HS, ng c tham gia c a ph n l n HS, tiêt ng cs tham gia c a t t c c s tham gia tích c c c a m t s II Ki m tra ánh giá h c sinh: i dung ánh giá Kh ng GV ki m tra c hi u a HS c c m GV th ng xuyên nêu câu h i ki m tra m c thông hi u c a HS Câu h i rõ ràng, sát n i dung v a d y Phân b câu h i u cho c l p GV th ng xuyên nêu câu h i ki m tra m c sát n i dung Phân b câu h i u thông hi u c a HS Câu h i rõ, thông hi u c a HS nh ng câu h i rõ GV có ý nêu câu h i ki m tra m c ho c ch t p trung vào m t nhóm HS GV nêu câu h i ki m tra m c thông hi u c a HS; ho c ch th sáo mòn d ng Do you understand? GV r t ki m tra m c Kh ng GV lý thông tin ph n h i HS t ng nêu câu h i thông hi u c a HS Nhanh chóng tr l i th c m c, ánh giá thông tin ph n h i, bi t khen ng i c n thi t, linh ho t s d ng ph n h i c a HS làm n n cho ho t ng ti p theo u ý tr l i th c m c, ánh giá thông tin ph n h i , bi t s d ng thông tin ph n h i làm n n cho ho t ng ti p theo Bi t l ng nghe, ti p thu ý ki n ph n h i c a HS nh ng x lý ho t linh ho t ng ti p theo ch a Bi t l ng nghe, ti p thu ý ki n ph n h i c a HS nh ng m t nhiêu th i gian gi i thích ho t l p l i ph n gi ng tr c ánh giá thông tin ph n h i r t h i h t, ti p t c gi ng theo giáo án S a l i cho HS GV quan sát s a l i cho HS trình h c t p r t hi u qu , không gây áp l c ng n ; t p trung s a l i s d ng ngôn ng nhi u h n lơi v hình th c ngôn ng GV quan sát s a l i cho HS trình h c t p có hi u qu , khơng gây áp l c ng n ; t p trung s a c l i s d ng ngôn ng l n lơi v hình th c ngơn ng GV l u ý quan sát s a l i cho HS trình h c t p, t p trung s a l i v hình th c ngơn ng nhi u h n l i s d ng ngôn ng GV s a l i nhi u làm HS m t t tin ho c dành ph n l n th i gian s a l i v hình th c ngơn ng GV s a l i cho HS ho c ch s a l i v hình th c ngơn ng p trung ki m tra kh n ng giao ti p, Ki m tra mi ng / Ki m tra y m gi c bi t tr ng k n ng Nghe- Nói p trung ki m tra kh n ng giao tiêp, không tr ng riêng k n ng Có hình th c ki m tra qua h i tho i nh ng n i dung ánh giá thiên v t ng pháp, coi nh phát âm k n ng giao ti p v ng Ch ki m tra kh n ng thu c c c a HS Ch ki m tra t v ng ng pháp 93 i dung ánh giá C ng ki n th c cu i gi & t p v nhà c t c m Bài t p c ng c mang tính giao ti p cao, v a s c, sát v i n i dung v a h c, t o c i cho HS v n d ng m t cách sáng t o ki n th c k n ng v a h c Bài t p c ng c sát v i n i dung v a h c, l u ý c ng c kh n ng s ng h n nh c l i hình th c ngơn ng Bài t p c ng c Bài t p c ng c ch d ng ngôn c n i dung v a h c nh ng n ng v hình th c ngơn ng hình th c thay th t (substitution drills) n gi n Không k p c ng c l i bài, ch thêm t p v nhà sách C Nh n xét chung v hi u qu ti t d y: m t c: ng k t ph n I: ng k t ph n II: ng c ng: 94 Appendix 4: Test Papers under evaluation 95 96 Appendix 5: The Communicative Achievement Test Name: Class: FORTY-FIVE-MINUTE TEST Subject: English Date: I Listening (20mks) Listen to the dialogue in a store You are going to listen once a Mrs Lan is buying five things What are they? One thing is in the first picture Tick (P) four more pictures ỵ o o b Answer the question: o o o o o o How much are the things? _ II Language (20mks) Blacken (˜) the correct answers There is ONE right answer for each gap (0) is an example eggs you want? A How B How much ˜ How many What the girls doing? A are B C does Is this car? A you re B you C your my sister She s ten A This is B He is C It is What ? She s a nurse A does she B does she C is she doing There _ milk for dinner A isn t some B isn t a C isn t any Hi, An _ you today?- Fine A Who are B How are C What are rice you want? A How B How many C How much My class is the first floor A on B at C in Is Mr Brown ? A England B English C an English 97 o 10 What would you like to drink?- A lemonade B cooking oil C orange 11 Hello, Lan - , Mr Phi A Hello B Good morning C Good night 12 What ?-Tea, please A would you like B you like C are you like B Lisa C I m Lisa 13 How you spell your name?- A L-I-S-A 14 ? -Yes, I d like some peas A What you like? B Can you help me? C Can I help you? 15 I m thirsty - to the canteen? A What about going B Why don t we go C A & B are correct 16 , Dung? - I m hungry A What s the matter B What you C How are you 17 How often you read? - A one a week B One in a week C Once a week 18 How you go to school? - _ A I walk to school B I go by foot C I go with my feet 19 What s your favorite food?- _ A I d like fish B I want some fish C I like fish 20 Let s go camping - _ A Yes, I like B That s a good idea C No, I don t like III Reading (20mks) Read the text and the sentences below Write (R) for the right sentences, write (W) for the wrong sentences (0) is an example It s six o clock in the evening Many people are at home They are having dinner They are watching TV They are listening to music But Mrs Bich is going to work She s a doctor and she works at night at the hospital Today she s late The hospital is not in her neighborhood so she usually goes by car She drives Mrs Bich is in her car now She s driving fast She should slow down but she must be at work by six-thirty A policeman stops her You are driving too fast! he says You re going to have an accident! It s six-thirty Mrs Bich is not at the hospital She s at the police station Her car must stay there for fourteen days (0) R Mrs Bich is a doctor _ Mrs Bich works from six-thirty in the morning to six-thirty in the evening _ The hospital is near her house _ Mrs Bich is at the police station at six-thirty _ She must stay at the police station for fourteen days IV Writing (20mks) a Read this letter from Bob: Dear Quynh, I go to school in Australia I m in the eighth grade My class is 8G and my school is Lakeside Junior High It s a big school with five floors School starts at in the morning and I always have lunch at school In the winter it s cold but I like cold weather After school I usually play football with my friends Love, Bob 98 b Now use the information in the pictures and table below to write a letter to Bob from Quynh Begin with: Dear Bob, I go to school in Vietnam MORNING AFTERNOON 6.00: get up; breakfast 13.00→17.00: school 7.00→10.00:home 17.00→18.30: free time work 18.30: dinner 11.00: lunch (Teachers can explain only the instructions to the students.) Thank you 99 ORAL TEST (20m) Student A: - Name - Age - Nationality - Class - Address - Tel c thông tin sau: : Bob : 13 : English : 6/12 : Hung Vuong Street, NT : 511455 Hãy óng vai Bob, gi i thi u v b n thân em t câu h i cho b n bi t thơng tin ng t v b n B t u cu c h i tho i b ng: Hello, I m Bob Student B: - Name - Age - Nationality - Class - Address - Tel c thông tin sau: : Marie : 13 : French : 6/11 : 25 Biet Thu Street, NT : 825361 Hãy óng vai Marie, gi i thi u v b n thân em t câu h i cho b n bi t thông tin ng t v b n B n em s b t u cu c h i tho i Student C: - Name - Age - Nationality - Class - Address - Tel c thông tin sau: : Minh : 13 : Vietnamese : 6/1 : 10 Hong Bang Street, NT : 510486 Hãy óng vai Minh, gi i thi u v b n thân em t câu h i cho b n bi t thông tin ng t v b n B n em s b t u cu c h i tho i Student A: Hãy t câu h i cho b n em bi t c nh ng thơng tin sau v gia ình b n y n vào ch tr ng Sau ó tr l i câu h i c a b n v gia ình em - Number of people: Father s age: Mother s age: Sister s age: Brother s age: Job: Job: Job: Job: Student B: Hãy tr l i câu h i c a b n v gia ình em t câu h i cho b n em c nh ng thơng tin sau v gia ình b n y n thơng tin có c vào ch tr ng: - Number of people: Father s age: Mother s age: Sister s age: Brother s age: 100 Job: Job: Job: Job: bi t Student A: Hãy n c a hàng mua th sau: - Milk : packet - Eggs : - Rice : 1kg - Beef : 200 grams Student B: Hãy óng vai ng theo b ng giá sau: i bán hàng H i xem b n em mua gì, bán cho b n 1,000 /packet 8,000 /kg 8,000 /g 10,000 /dozen 13,000 /packet 6,000 /kg 15,000 /can 4,500 /kg 32,000 /packet 4,000 /kg Answer Keys and Marking Scheme I Listening (20mks) a pictures of milk, rice, tea, eggs b thirty five thousand / 35,000 (dongs) 16mks (4mks/picture) 4mks (0mk if any spelling mistake that makes understanding impossible) Transcript: A: Can I help you? B: Yes I want some milk, please A: Milk, there you are B: And I d like some rice, please A: Rice Of course How much you want? B: A kilo, please A: One kilo of rice There you are What else? B: A packet of noodles and a packet of tea A: Some noodles and some tea Fine What about some eggs? B: I need eggs You re right Give me half a dozen A: There you are Six eggs Anything else? B: No, that s it How much is it, please? A: Let me see now, milk, a kilo of rice, a packet of noodles, a packet of tea, six eggs, mmm that s thirty-five thousand, please B: Here you are A: Thanks a lot See you again! B: Bye bye (Source: Tape Grade Listening Test, issued in conjunction with the course book) 101 II Language (20mks) 1.A 2.C 3.A 4.A 11.B 12.A 13.A 14.C 5.C 15.C III Reading (20mks) W 2.W 3.R 1mk / correct answer 6.B 7.C 8.A 9.B 16.A 17.C 18.A 19.C 10.A 20.B 5mks / correct answer 4.W IV Writing (20mks) Marking writing - Task completion: 10mks 10 marks All parts of task fully and successfully addressed marks Most parts of task fully and successfully addressed marks Most aspects of task addressed successfully marks Some parts of task addressed in a limited manner marks Very weak attempt to address task marks No attempt or only irrelevant information Task specification: - Making it look like a letter: punctuations, closing words, signature; - Describing the school in the picture (Name: Thai Nguyen, floors ); - Telling when school starts or school timetable; when (s)he has lunch / dinner; - Describing the weather and her/his opinion (hot, doesn t like / like); - Describing her/his pastime activities Marking writing - Language content: 10mks 10 marks Shows competence in joining ideas and sequencing sentences Punctuation is accurate and only minor grammatical errors or spelling mistakes marks Shows some competence in joining ideas and sequencing sentences Punctuation does not interfere with communication A few grammatical errors and some spelling mistakes marks Shows some ability to join ideas and sequence sentences Punctuation does not interfere with communication Some grammatical errors and spelling mistakes marks Only a limited ability to join ideas and sequence sentences Punctuation can confuse the reader and there are some major grammatical errors and spelling mistakes marks Evidence of only a basic understanding of sentence structure with little ability to join ideas or sequence sentences Punctuation is poor or absent and grammatical errors and spelling mistakes are frequent marks No attempt, or errors make communication impossible Language specification: - Simple present tense - Prepositions and linking words - Vocabulary about school, weather, pastime activities / sports V Speaking (The oral test) Total mark: 20 Content: 4mks; Accuracy: 4mks; Fluency: 4mks; Interaction: 4mks; Pronunciation and intonation: 4mks 102 Bibliography Bachman, L F & Palmer, A S (1996) Language Testing in Practice: Designing and Developing Useful Language Tests Oxford University Press Bachman, L.F (1990) Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing Oxford: Oxford University Press Baker, J & Westrup H (2000) English Language Teacher s Handbook VSO Continuum Brown, H D., (1987) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching NJ: Prentice Hall Regents Canale, M and Swain, M (1980) Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing Aplied Linguistics Vol.1 No Carter, R & Nunan, D (Eds.) 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