The aim of this book is not to present a unified theory of meaning in language (I am not even sure that that would be a worthwhile project), but to survey the full range of semantic phenomena, in all their richness and variety, in such a way that the reader will feel, on completing the book, that he or she has made face to face contact with the undeniably messy real world of meaning. At the same time, it aims to show that even the messy bits can, at least to some extent, be tamed by the application o f disciplined thinking
Series editors Keith Brown, Eve V. Clark, Jim Miller, Lesley Milroy, Geoffrey K. Pullum, and Peter Roach Meaning in Language An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics Meaning in Language An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics D Alan Cruse University of Manchester OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS This page intentionally left blank OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogota Buenos Aires Calcutta Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Paris Sao Paulo Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw with associated companies in Berlin Ibadan Oxford is a trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Oxford University Press 2000 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organizations. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data (Data applied for) ISBN 0198700105 0 Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk Printed in Great Britain on acidfree paper by Bath Press Ltd., Bath, Avon To Paute, Pierre, and Lisette This page intentionally left blank Contents Typographic conventions ix Preface x Parti Fundamental Notions Introduction Logical matters Types and dimensions of meaning Compositionality Part Words and their Meanings 17 41 65 13 Lexical decomposition 83 85 103 125 143 163 177 197 217 237 Part Semantics and Grammar 14 Grammatical semantics 263 265 Introduction to lexical semantics Contextual variability of word meaning Word meanings and concepts Paradigmatic sense relations of inclusion and identity Paradigmatic relations of exclusion and opposition 10 Word fields 11 Extensions of meaning 12 Syntagmatic relations viii Contents Part 4: Pragmatics 15 Reference and deixis 16 Speech acts 17 Implicatures Conclusion Answers to questions References Index 301 303 329 347 379 383 401 409 Typographic conventions Small capitals For concepts; occasionally for lexical roots Small capitals in square brackets For semantic components Angled brackets For selectional restrictions Bold type For technical terms when first introduced Italics For citation forms when not set on a different line Bold italics For emphasis Single quotation marks For quotations from other authors; 'scare quotes' Double quotation marks For meanings Question marks For semantic oddness Asterisks For ungrammaticality or extreme semantic abnormality 410 Subject index arguments and predicates 1921 aspect (grammatical) 27580 habitual 278 inchoative, medial, terminative 278 perfect vs prospective 2767 perfective vs imperfective 276 punctual vs durative 277 punctual vs iterative 276 uses of English progressive 27880 aspectual character 27880 assertives 342 attachments 156 attenuative 189 attributive adjectives 289 autohyponymy no automeronymy 187 backgrounding 58 Banter Principle 367 basic domains 141 basic level, basiclevel categories 53, 1367, 181 basicness 52, 53 basiclevel categories 53, 1367, 181 dependence and independence 523 observation vocabulary 52 primitivity 53 benefactive role 283 binarism 257 binarity and oppositeness 167 binding (of variables) 292 bipolar chains 189 attenuatives 18990 implicit superlatives 189 bipoles 189 breaches of commitment 345 bridging inferences 371 calculability (implicatures) 351 cancellability (implicatures) 350 canonical necessity 56, 154 case roles see under functional roles 2814 category boundaries 1389 centred clusters 193 circumstantial roles 281 clash (semantic) 227 class relations 324 and propositional relations 33 disjunction 32 identity 32 inclusion 32 intersection 32 mapping 33, 34 manytomany 34 manytoone 33 onetomany 33 onetoone 33 union 33 cliches 76 closed set items 8990 clusters (lexical) 1934 centred clusters 1934 cohyponyms 166 comeronymy 1667 cooccurrence patterns between words 232 extralinguistic factors 232 cotaxonymy 166 coding hypothesis 354 coercion of senses 120 collocational preferences 221 collocations 76 commandmeaning 28 compliancevalue 28 commissives 342 communication 56 channel hearer's meaning model noise sign meaning speaker's meaning commutation 244 complementaries 168 domain dependence 169 logical definition 168 complex categories 78 compositionality 6779 limits to compositionality 709 active zones 77 noncompositional aspects of compositional expressions 779 active zones 78 complex categories 789 noun compounds 77 noncompositional expressions 705 Subject index cliches 76 collocations 76 frozen metaphors 745 idioms 724 models buildingMock 79 holistic 79 scaffolding 79 modes of combination 689 additive 68 interactive 689 endocentric indirect types 69 negational descriptors 69 relative descriptors 69 exocentric 69 principle of compositionality 67, 72 compound categories 139 concepts 12740 classical approach 1302 necessary and sufficient criteria 130 problems 1302 concept network 1278 domains 140 fuzzy boundaries 131 importance of 127 internal structure 132 links between concepts 128 profile and base 140 prototype theory 13240 basic level categories 53, 1367, 181 family resemblance 133 goodnessofexemplar 1323 mental representation 1356 featurebased model 136 portrait model 135 problematic aspects 1379 category boundaries 138 compound categories 139 context sensitivity 139 prototype effects 1334 priming experiments 134 speed of verification experiments 134 types of conceptual category 13940 wordconcept mapping 1278 conceptual categories as containers 206 conceptual gap 188 conceptual structure 129 conservativity 2956 Consideration Maxim 3667 constatives 337 constitutive (qualia) rote 118 content plane 243 content words 90 context dependence (of conversational implicatures) 34950 context in Relevance Theory 370 context sensitivity (prototypes) 139 contextual approach to meaning 43 contextual effects and relevance 369 contradictory propositions 31 contrary propositions 3031 conventional implicature 24 conventional implicatures 34950 conversational implicatures 34961, 3737 calculability 351 coding hypothesis 354 context dependence 34950 conversational maxims 3558 the Cooperative Principle 3556 defeasibility/cancellability 350 flouting the maxims 3601 Maxim of Manner 361 Maxim of Quality 360 Maxim of Quantity 3601 Maxim of Relation 361 implicatures of politeness 3618 maximbased vs relevancebased accounts 3545 nondetachability 3501 problems of definition 3534 relation to expressed proposition 3523 relevancetheoretical approach 3737 saying and contradictability 3512 scalar implicature 359 standard implicatures 3579 conversational maxims 3558 Maxim of Manner 357 Maxim of Quality 3556 Maxim of Quantity 356 Maxim of Relation 3567 nonlinguistic analogues 3578 relation to cultural conventions 3578 converseness 35 converses (lexical) 172 411 412 Subject index congruence 172 twoand threeplace 172 correspondences (between domains in metaphor) 2056 costbenefit scale 3634 count nouns 26970 secondary uses 270 semimass use 271 dative/experiencer role 283 declaratives 337 declaratives (performative vbs) 343 deep cases see under functional roles 2814 defeasibility (implicatures) 350 definite descriptions 31415 definite reference 3068, 31218 conditions for success 3068 definite descriptions 31415 deixis 31926 latent elements 313 proper names 313, 31518 definite referring expressions 31214 latent elements 313 NPs with definite determiners 31415 personal pronouns 313 proper names 313, 31518 temporal adverbs 313 degrees of membership (categories) 138 deixis 31926 deictic vs nondeictic uses of locatives 325 discourse 3234 nondeictic meaning in deictic elements 319 person, personal pronouns 31920 social 3223 spatial 3201, 324 temporal 3212 denotation 306 deontic modality 2878 dependant (semantic) 226 derivational affix 89 derivational sense relations 14950 descriptive meaning 4658 characteristics 467 conceptualisation 47 displacement 47 logical 46 objectivity 47 referential 467 intrinsic dimensions 4854 basicness 523 intensity 4950 quality 489 specificity 501 vagueness 512 viewpoint 534 relative dimensions 548 necessity 546 salience 57 figureground effect 57 highlighting and backgrounding 58 presupposition 58 sufficiency 57 diagnosticity see also sufficiency 57 logical diagnosticity 57 natural diagnosticity 57 dimensions of meaning 4361 descriptive 4658 evoked 601 expressive 5860 directional entailingness 2968 downward entailment 2967 negative polarity items 2978 upward entailment 2967 directionality of syntagmatic constraints 2256 selector vs selectee 225 semantic head vs semantic dependant 226 directives 342 disambiguation 37071 discontinuities (semantic) 2412,2534 discourse deixis 3234 discreteness, distinctness (of readings) 1056 dissonance (semantic) 46 distinctness, distinctness (of readings) 1056 antagonism 106 discreteness 1056 distributional markedness 173 distributive plural 271 domain matrix 141 domains 1401 basic domains 141 domain matrix 141 dual (number) 269 Subject index durative (aspect) 277 dysphemism 158 ellipted elements 372 enrichment (contextual) 353, 372 entailment 2830, 250, 34950 epistemic commitment 25 epistemic modality 287 equipollent antonyms 170 essential conditions 344 establishment (of readings) 10810 established vs nonestablished readings 109 euphemism 158 evaluative meaning 59 evoked meaning 601 field, mode and style 61 exclamations 340 existential quantifier 291 experiencer role 283 expletives 59 explicature 3703 disambiguation 3701 enrichment 3723 reference assignment 3712 semantic incompleteness 3723 explicit performativity 3346 expression plane 243 expressive amplifiers 60 expressive constraint 129 expressive meaning 5860 evaluative meaning 59 expletives 59 expressive amplifiers 60 prosodic gradability 59 expressives (performative vbs) 3423 extensional approach to meaning 21 extensions of meaning 199215 literal vs nonliteral meaning 199 201 metaphor 20211 metonymy 21112 naturalised, established and nonce extensions 201 semantic change 21415 facets 11417, 147, 254 ambiguity in containing constructions 115 autonomy 11516 identity constraint 114 independent metaphorical extensions "5 independent proper nouns 115 independent sense relations 115 independent truth conditions 114 unity 116 factitive role 282, 283 family resemblance 101, 1323 felicity conditions 3435 essential 344 preparatory 3434 sincerity 344 figureground effect 57 flouting the maxims 3601 frozen metaphors 74 functional roles 2814 activity hierarchy 284 agentive 281, 283 dative/experiencer 282, 283 factitive 283 instrumental 282, 283 locative 282, 2834 objective 282, 284 participant vs circumstantial roles 2812 fuzzy boundaries 131 gender and animacy 2724 natural vs grammatical gender 273 generalised quantifiers 2945 generic level 181 generic reference 31112 collective reading 31112 distributed reading 311 Generosity Maxim 364 gestural deixis 3245 GoodnessofExemplar ratings 132 gradability 169 gradable adjectives 290 grammatical constraint 129 grammatical meaning 89, 267 adjectives and properties 289 aspect 2758 functional roles 2814 gender and animacy 2724 modality 2869 number 26972 syntactctic categories 2678 413 414 Subject index tense 2745 voice 2801 grammatical performativity 33640 declaratives 337 exclamations 340 imperatives 33940 interrogatives 3389 grammatical word 88 grids 1913 analogues, analogicity 1923 ground (of metaphor) 202 guppy effect 78 habitual (aspect) 278 happiness conditions 3435 head (semantic) 226 hierarchies 7988 branching 17988 beginner 180 meronomies 1856 nodes 180 relation of differentiation 180 relation of dominance 180 taxonomies 1801 higher order explicatures 373 highlighting 58 holonym 153 homonyms 109, 147 homonymy 109, 147 hyperonym 150 hyponymy, hyponyms 1503, 250 difficulties of definition 151 hyponyms and superordinates 1501 prototype approach 1512 syntagmatic consequences 151 taxonymy 152 transitivity 1523 ideational meaning 46 identity constraint 106, 114 identity test 106 idioms 72, 77 illocutionary acts 33142 performative verbs 3346 performativity 33443 illocutionary force 26, 33342 explicit vs implicit 333 image metaphors 209 imageschemas 207 impartiality 170 impartiality in polar antonyms 170 imperatives 33940 imperfective (aspect) 276 implicated conclusions 375 implicated premises 375 impticatures 34977 conventional 34950 conversational 34961, 3737 implicit superlatives 189 impositives 3634 impoverishment (of sense) 1223 inappropriateness (semantic) 222 inchoative (aspect) 278 incompatibility, incompatibfes 1656, 250 cotaxonymy 166 incongruity 222 indefinite reference 30810 ambiguity claims 309 specific vs nonspecific 30810 indirect speech acts 333 inflectional affix 89 ingredients 155 inherentness in antonyms 171 instrumental role 282, 283 integral parts 156 intensional approach to meaning 22 interrogatives 3389 Irony Principle 367 iterative (aspect) 2778 latency 282, 313 latent opposition 168 lexeme 889 lexical decomposition 23961 aims 24254 accounting for discontinuities 2534 lexical contrasts and similarities 2489 lexical relations and entailments 25051 predicting anomaly 2513 reduction 2428 alternatives 2601 correlations 2401 discontinuities 241, 2534 prima facie motivation 23942 problematic aspects 2547 binarism 2589 Subject index bogus analyses 255 finiteness and exhaustiveness 2567 modes of combination 259 overhasty analyses 2545 universal vs languagespecific components 256 simplexcomplex parallels 242 lexical gap 1823, 187 lexical meaning 89, 11119 between polysemy and monosemy 11419 facets 11417 perspectives 11719 qualia roles 119 sense spectra, local senses 11920 subsenses 119 polysemy, polysemes 11113 linear relations between polysemes enrichment 121 hyponymic 1212 meronymic 122 impoverishment 122 selection, coercion and modulation 120 literal meaning 199201 closest to basic human experience 2001 default reading 200 earliest recorded use 199 most frequent reading 199 start of most plausible path of change 200 synchrony and diachrony 201 local sense 11920 locative adverbs 313, 3201 locative role 282, 2834 11011 goal 284 autoholonymy 111 path 284 autohyponymy 11011 source 283 automeronymy 111 locutionary acts 3312 logical equivalence 30 autosuperordination 111 nonlinear polysemy 112 logical relations 34 metaphor 112 converses 35 systematic polysemy 113 reflexive, irreflexive and nonreflexive lexical root 88 34 lexical rules 97 semiconverses 35 lexical semantics 85261 symmetric, asymmetric and non approaches 96102 symmetric 34 componential 989 transitive, intransitive and non conceptual 1001 transitive 34 loose talk 204 formal 102 holistic 99100 Haas 99, 100 mapping 33, 127 Lyons 100 wordconcept mapping 127 onelevel vs twolevel 967 marked term 172 polysemic vs monosemic 97 markedness 1723, 258 major problems 96 markedness and partiality 173 description of content 956 semantic markedness 173 mass nouns 26971 sense relations 96 structures in the lexicon 96 secondary uses 27071 material implication 29 word meaning and syntactic Maxim of Manner 357 properties 96 lexical senses 108, 122, 129 Maxim of Quality 3556 establishment 1089 Maxim of Quantity 356 Maxim of Relation 356 established vs nonestablished readings 109 meaning postulates 260 medial (aspect) 278 homonymy vs polysemy 109 modulation 122, 129 mention see use and mention 36 415 416 Subject index meronomies 1858 automeronymy 187 contrastive aspects 1878 levels 186 lexical gaps 1868 meronymy, meronyms 1536 diagnostic frames 153 ingredients 155 integral parts vs attachments 156 logical properties 153 meronyms and holonyms 153 parts vs pieces 1556 prototype features 1535 congruence 155 discreteness 154 integrality 154 motivation 154 necessity 154 supermeronyms and semimeronyms 155 transitivity 156 metaphor 112, 20210 analogue model (Black) 2034 primary and secondary subject 204 and deviance 21011 conceptual approach (Lakoff) 2059 correspondences 2056 epistemic 206 image metaphors 209 ontological 2056 imageschemas 2078 metaphorical entailments 207 personifications 209 proverbs 209 source domain 205 target domain 205 decorative function 209 interaction of semantic fields (Haas) 203 Relevance Theory 2045 substitution view 202 vehicle, tenor and ground 202 metonymy 112, 21113 functions 21314 metonymy vs metaphor 21112 recurrent patterns 21213 middle (voice) 2801 minimal semantic constituent 71 misfiring (of speech act) 343 modality 2869 effects of negation 288 epistemic vs deontic 287 relation to deixis 2889 values of modals 2878 modes of semantic combination 68, 259 additive 68 clusters 259 configurations 259 interactive 68 endocentric 68 Boolean 68 relative descriptors 68 exocentric 68 Modesty Maxim 365 modification 289 modulation of sense 1203 enrichment 1212 hyponymic 122 meronymic 122 impoverishment 1223 monopolar chains 1901 degrees 190 measures 1901 ranks 191 sequences 191 stages 190 morphological markedness 173 natural kind terms 55, 317 natural necessity 56 naturalised extensions 201 nearsynonymy 15960 necessity 546 canonical necessity 56 natural necessity 56 social necessity 56 negative polarity items (negpols) 2978 neutralisation 173, 258 nominal kind terms 55 nondescriptive dimensions of meaning 5861 nondetachability (implicatures) 3501 nongradable adjectives 290 nonliteral meaning 198201 nonce readings 2012 normality profile 43 noun compounds (semantics of) 77 number (grammatical) 26972 Subject index countability 26971 plural nouns with (optional) singular concord 272 secondary uses of count and mass nouns 2701 semimass use of count nouns 271 singular nouns with (optional) plural concord 272 singular, plural, dual, trial, paucal 269 objective role 282, 283 patient 284 theme 284 observation vocabulary 52 ontological types 49 open (pragmatic) ambiguity 110 open set items 89 opposites 16775 antonyms 16971 characteristic features binarity 167 inherentness 167 patency 168 complementaries 168 directional opposites 1712 antipodals 171 converses 172 reversives 171 markedness 172 distributional markedness 173 markedness and partiality 173 morphological markedness 173 semantic markedness 173 polarity 1745 overlapping antonyms 171 paradigmatic sense relations 14376 relations of identity and inclusion 15061 hyponymy 1503 meronymy 1536 synonymy 15660 paradox 31, 222, 227 participant roles see under functional roles 2814 partonym 153 passive (voice) 2801 patency in opposites 168 paucal (number) 269 perfect (aspect) 2767 perfective (aspect) 276 performative hypothesis 3412 performative sentences 337 performative verbs 3336, 342 assertives 342 commissives 342 declaratives 343 directives 342 expressives 3423 truthconditionality 3356 performativity 33340 grammatical 33640 performative hypothesis 3412 perlocutionary acts 331, 332 person deixis 31920 personal pronouns 313, 31920 egodominance 320 representative vs true use of plurals 320 personifications 209 perspectives, ways of seeing 11719, 147 qualia roles 11819 agentive 11819 constitutive role 118 formal role 118 telic 118 perspectives, ways of seeing 147 philonyms 224 pleonasm 45, 2239 and repetition 223 conditions for occurrence 226 plural 26972 polar antonyms 16970 polarity 174 evaluative 175 logical 174 morphological 174 polarity and partiality 175 positive and negative 174 privative 174 politeness 3618 costbenefit scale 3634 impositives 3634 maxims 3638 Agreement Maxim 3656 Consideration Maxim 3667 Generosity Maxim 364 Modesty Maxim 365 Praise Maxim 3656 Sympathy Maxim 366 417 418 Subject index Tact Maxim 3634 Politeness Principle 3613, 368 positive vs negative 362 Pollyanna Principle 366 polysemy, polysemes 10910, 147, 2101 coerced polysemy 109 linear relations between polysemes no regular 211 potency 273 pragmatic ambiguity no Praise Maxim 3645 predicative adjectives 28990 presupposition 58 priming experiments 134 Principle of Relevance 77, 369 processing effort and relevance 369 profile and base 140 progressive (English), meanings of 27880 punctual verbs 280 stative verbs 279 verbs of perception 27980 proper names 31518 prepositional acts 332 prepositional content 24 prepositional function 292 prepositional independence 31 prepositional meaning 46 prepositional synonymy 158 propositions 256 incomplete propositions 26 prospective (aspect) 2767 prototype theory 101, 132, 13640 basic level categories 1367 goodnessofexemplar 1323 mental representation 136 featurebased model 136 portrait model 135 problematic aspects 138, 139 category boundaries 138 compound categories 139 prototype effects 1334 priming experiments 134 speed of verification experiments 134 types of conceptual category 140 proverbs 209 punctual (aspect) 2778 punning see under zeugma 108 qualia roles 11819 agentive 11819 constitutive 118 formal 118 telic 118 quantification, quantifiers 356, 2915 ambiguities of scope 2924 conservativity 2956 directional entailingness 296 existential quantifier 35, 291 generalised quantifier 2945 interaction with negatives 2913 prepositional function 292 quantified NPs 291 quantifiers 2915 restriction 291 scope 36, 2914 universal quantifier 2914 variable binding 2912 wide scope preference hierarchy 293 question meaning 27 answerconditions 27 answervalue 27 recurrent contrast test 70 reductive analysis 98, 2428 reference 30526 definite 3068, 31218 definite reference 3068, 31218 generic 3112 indefinite 30811 nonreferential uses of referring expressions 312 referential meaning 46 referential stability 55 regular polysemy 211 Relevance Theory 36877 criticisms of Gricean approach 369 explicature 37073 higher order explicatures 373 implicated premises vs implicated conclusions 375 implicature vs explicature 3735 Principle of Relevance 369 problem of context 370 strong vs weak implicatures 3757 reversives 1712 root morpheme 90 Subject index salience 578 figureground effect 57 highlighting and backgrounding 58 presupposition 58 scalar implicature 359 scope 36, 2914 of quantifier 291 ambiguity 292 segmental parts 155 vs systemic parts 155 selectee 225 selection of senses 120 selectional preferences 221 selector 225 semantic change 21415 semantic clash 221 collocational vs selectional preferences 221 inappropriateness 222 incongruity 222 paradox 222 semantic constituent 702 minimal semantic constituent 71 semantic features 56 semantic incompleteness 3723 semantic markedness 173 semantic primitives 2478 semantic proportionality 71 semantics and syntax: a case study 2846 'clear' verbs 286 'remove' verbs 286 'wipe' verbs 286 semimeronym 155 semiotics 710 continuous and discrete signs iconic and arbitrary signs inguistic signs linguistic signs functional levels 10 simple and complex natural and conventional signs paralinguistic signs 89 illustration modulation punctuation sense relations (general discussion) 1459 abstract vs concrete 146 context sensitivity 147 derivational 14950 discrimination 145 lexicalisability 146 multiple simultaneous relations 1467 paradigmatic 148 recurrence 145 related entities 147 significance 149 syntagmatic 1489 sense spectra 119 sense, denotation and reference 21, 22 senses see under lexical senses 108 sentence meaning 224, 90 sincerity conditions 344 singular (number) 269 social deixis 3223 social necessity 56 spatial deixis 320 egodominance 321 gestural vs symbolic 320, 3245 proximal, distal and remote 320 psychological use 324 specificity 50 speech acts 33145 abuse 344 breach of commitment 345 felicity conditions 3435 indirect 333 locutionary 3312 misfiring 343 types illocutionary 33243 assertives 342 commissives 342 declarative 343 directives 342 expressives 3423 locutionary 3312 perlocutionary 332 uptake 3445 speed of verification experiments 134 standard implicatures 3579 statement meaning 246 stative verbs in progressive 278 strict implication 29 strong implicatures 3756 stylistic presupposition 221 subsenses 119,147 subject (grammatical), meaning of 283 sufficiency 57 419 42O Subject index supermeronym 155 superordinate 150 symbolic deixis 3245 Sympathy Maxim 366 syncategorematic adjectives 290 synonymy, synonyms 15660 absolute synonymy 1578 nearsynonymy 15960 prepositional synonymy 158 scale of synonymity 157 syntactic categories (meanings of) 2678 syntagmatic relations of meaning 21934 abnormality 2214 directionality of constraints 2256 discourse interaction vs syntagmatic interaction 21921 normal vs abnormal cooccurrence 21921 normality vs interpretability 220 pleonasm 2234 puzzling aspects 2289 specifying cooccurrence patterns between words 2324 arbitrary restrictions 2334 cliches 233 noncompositional affinities 234 stereotypic combinations 233 specifying cooccurrence restrictions 22931 syntagmatic sense relations 1489, 224 philonyms 224 syntagmaticparadigmatic connections 2278 tautonyms 224 xenonyms 224 synthetic sentences, syntheticity 32, 251 systematic polysemy 113 systemic parts 155 Tact Maxim 3634 tautonyms 224 taxonomies 1803 contrastive aspects 185 intersecting 184 levels 1803 basic level 1812 gaps and autotaxonymy 1823 number of levels 182 substantive 181 technical 181 natural vs ideal 1834 taxonymy, taxonyms 152 telic (qualia) role 118 temporal adverbs 313 temporal deixis 3212 calendric vs noncalendric interpretations 3212 tenor (of metaphor) 202 tense 2745 hodiernal systems 274 metrical systems 274 primary tenses 2745 primary vs secondary tenses 274 secondary tenses 275 vectorial systems 274 terminative (aspect) 278 thematic roles see under functional roles 2814 transitivity (of meronymy) 156 transitivity (logical) 34 trial (number) 269 truth conditions 147 underspecification of messages 370 universal quantifier 291 unmarked term 172 uptake (of speech act) 3445 use and mention 367 utterance act 331 utterance meaning 267 vagueness 512, 1223 illdefinedness 51 laxness (vs strictness) 512 values of modals 2878 vehicle (of metaphor) 202 voice (grammatical) 2801 active 2801 middle 2801 passive 2801 weak implicatures 3757 wide scope (quantifiers) 2934 wide scope preference hierarchy 2934 word 879 derivational affix 89 grammatical word 88 inflectional affix 89 lexeme 889 Subject index lexical root 88 word form 889 word families 149 word fields 179, 18994 clusters 1934 grids 1912 hierarchies 17980 branching hierarchies 17980 linear structures 189 bipolar chains 189 bipoles 189 miscellaneous types 194 wordfamilies 194 monopolar chains 1901 word meaning 8995 lexical vs grammatical meaning 89 content words 90 open vs closed set items 8990 possible word meanings 905 word vs sentence meaning 90 Wordconcept mapping 1278 manytoone 128 onetomany 128 onetoone 128 wordfamilies 194 wordspecific semantic properties 129 xenonyms 224 zeugma 46, 108 421 This page intentionally left blank Author index Allan, K. 299 Allwood, J.A. 39 Anderson, L.G. 39 Anderson, E.S. 161 Anderson, S. 327 Argyle, M. 16 Aristotle 202 Austin, J.L. 331, 345 Baldinger, K. 261 Beattie, G.W. 16 Berlin, B. 131, 196 Black, M. 202, 2034, 2ID11, 216 Blakemore, D. 346, 353, 371, 373, 374, 378 Bolinger, D. 261 Brown, C.H. 161 Biihler, K. 319 Cann, R. 39, 81, 161, 294, 295, 296, 300 Chaffin,R. 161 Chesterman, A. 327 Chomsky, A. 92, 93, 94, 98, 102, 220 Comrie, B. 274 Cornwell, P. 2012 Coseriu, E. 261 Croft, W.A. 216 Cruse, D.A. 44, 56, 60, 63, 72, 80, 81, 119, 124, 138, 142, 1512, 1546 161, 167, 171, 176, 190, 192, 195, 222, 235, 299, 315 Dahl, O. 39, 300 Deane, P.D. 261 Dillon, G.L. 81 Dirven, R. 216 Ellis, A. 16 Fillmore, C.J. 2824, 300 Firth, J.R. 99 Fodor 989, 235, 247, 2567, 261 Fraser.B. 81 Frawley, W. 299 Gibbs, R.W. 81 Geckeler, H. 261 Geeraerts, D. 124 Givon, T. 327 Grafton, S. 2156 Grice,H.P. 353, 35561, 363, 368, 369, 378 Haas, W. 99, 100, 102, 203, 204, 210, 216 Halliday, M.A.K. 46, 63, 2878, 300 Hampton, J. 139, 142 Hawkins, J 310 Heasley, B. 39 Hjelmslev, L. 98, 2428, 261 Hockett, C.F. 47 Horn, L. 378 Hovav Rappaport, M. 2856 Hunn.E.S. 196 Hurford, J.R. 39 Jackendoff, R. 94, 101, 102, 142, 235, 261, 306 Jakobson, R. 211 Kastovsky, D. 235 Katz,J.J. 81, 98, 99, 235, 247, 2567, 261 424 Author index Kay, P. 131 Kovecses, Z. 216 Labov, W. 131 Lakoff, G. 135, 138, 2059,216, 273 Langacker, R.W. 50, 63, 81, 124, 135, 138, 140, 235, 268, 285 Larson, R. 39, 298, 300 Leech, G.N. 63, 346, 355, 3618, 378 Lehrer, A.J. 196 Lehrer, K. 176 Leibniz, G.W. 99, 247 Levin, B. 2856 Levinson, S.C. 63, 327, 345, 356, 358, 378 Lyons, J. 5,22, 39, 46, 56, 63, too, 102, 147, 161, 169, 173, 338 McCawley, J.D. 39 Mackin, R. 81 Makkai, A. 81 Mettinger, A. 176 Murphy, G.L. 142 Partee, B.H. 81 Pottier, B. 256, 257, 261 Pulman, S.G. 923, 102 Pustejovsky, J. 118, 261 Richards, LA. 2023 Rosch, E.H. 101, 132 Ruhl, C. 124 Sampson, G. 261 Saussure, F. de 100, 2423 Schmid, H.J. 142 Schwanenflugel, P.J. 142 Searle, J.R. 307, 3178, 327, 332, 3423, 345 Segal, G. 39, 298, 300 Sperber, D. 204, 355, 36877 Talmy, L. 102 Taylor, J.R. 142, 261 Togia, P. 176 Tuggy.D. 124 Turner, M. 216 Tutescu, M. 261 Ungerer, F. 142 Newmeyer, F. 81 Nida, E.A. 256, 261 Ortony, A. 216 Palmer, F.R. 300, 339, 346 Weinreich, U. 261 Wierzbicka, A. 99, 2468, 255, 256, 261 Wilson, D. 204, 355, 36877, 378 Wittgenstein, L. 101