Showing Cause and Effect 1 Showing Cause and Effect 1 It is often necessary to show cause and effect (reason and result) by joining It is often necessary to show cause and effect (reason and result) by joining sentences: Beths grades were high. > Beth got a scholarship. (cause reason) (effect result) The conjunction (connecting word) most often used to join sentences like these is because: Beth got a scholarship because her grades were high. Another conjunction often used to join sentences showing cause and effect is since: Beth got a scholarship since her grades were high. Because and since can also be at the beginning of sentences showing cause and effect. In this position, they are separated from the effect sentence by a comma: Because Beths grades were high, she got a scholarship. Since Beths grades were high, she got a scholarship. Causes can also be shown with prepositions + noun phrases (not sentences). In this situation, because of, due to, and on account of are commonly used: Beth got a scholarship because of her high grades. Beth got a scholarship due to her high grades. Beth got a scholarship on account of her high grades. Sometimes because of, due to, and on account of are combined with the fact that and then used with sentences, not noun phrases: Beth got a scholarship because of the fact that her grades were high. Beth got a scholarship on account of the fact that her grades were high. Beth got a scholarship due to the fact that her grades were high. sentences Beths grades were high > Beth got a scholarship (cause.
Showing Cause and Effect #1 It is often necessary to show cause and effect (reason and result) by joining sentences: Beth's grades were high -> Beth got a scholarship (cause / reason) (effect / result) The conjunction (connecting word) most often used to join sentences like these is because: Beth got a scholarship because her grades were high Another conjunction often used to join sentences showing cause and effect is since: Beth got a scholarship since her grades were high Because and since can also be at the beginning of sentences showing cause and effect In this position, they are separated from the effect sentence by a comma: Because Beth's grades were high, she got a scholarship Since Beth's grades were high, she got a scholarship Causes can also be shown with prepositions + noun phrases (not sentences) In this situation, because of, due to, and on account of are commonly used: Beth got a scholarship because of her high grades Beth got a scholarship due to her high grades Beth got a scholarship on account of her high grades Sometimes because of, due to, and on account of are combined with the fact that and then used with sentences, not noun phrases: Beth got a scholarship because of the fact that her grades were high Beth got a scholarship on account of the fact that her grades were high Beth got a scholarship due to the fact that her grades were high Special Notes: Because and since can also be in the middle of sentences In this position, not use a comma: wrong: *I went to bed, because (since) I was exhausted wrong: *I went to bed because, (since,) I was exhausted right: I went to bed because (since) I was exhausted Since also has a very different time meaning: They've been married since 1972 Do not use because of, due to, and on account of before sentences: wrong: *I wrote a check because of I didn't have enough cash wrong: *I used a credit card due to I had forgotten to bring cash wrong: *I can't pay for dinner on account of I forgot my wallet and checkbook Sometimes The reason that is also used to introduce effects: The reason that I didn't come to your party is (that) I was sick Note: No comma is used with The reason that Do not use because or because of with The reason that: wrong: *The reason that I didn't come to your was because I was sick wrong: *The reason that I didn't come to your was because of sickness Cause and Effect #2 When a cause (reason) has the expected effect (result), the most commonly used connecting words are because, since, because of, due to, and on account of: Expected effect: Beth's grades were high -> Beth got a scholarship (cause / reason) (effect / result) Beth got a scholarship because her grades were high Beth got a scholarship since her grades were high Beth got a scholarship because of her high grades Beth got a scholarship due to her high grades Beth got a scholarship on account of her high grades Unexpected effect: Sometimes, however, the effect is not what is expected for the cause: Beth's grades were high -> She didn't get a scholarship In this situation, different connecting words are used The most common ones used with sentences are although, though, and even though; the most common ones used with noun phrases are in spite of and despite: Beth didn't get a scholarship although her grades were high Beth didn't get a scholarship though her grades were high Beth didn't get a scholarship even though her grades were high Beth didn't get a scholarship in spite of her high grades Beth didn't get a scholarship despite her high grades Special Notes: Although, though, and even though can also be at the beginning of sentences In this position, use a comma after the cause: Although / Though / Even though Beth's grades were high, she didn't get a scholarship Do not use a comma when although, though, even though, despite, or in spite of are between or inside sentences: wrong: *Beth didn't get a scholarship, although / though / even though her grades were high wrong: *Beth didn't get a scholarship although, / though, / even though, her grades were high wrong: *Beth didn't get a scholarship, despite / in spite of her high grades wrong: *Beth didn't get a scholarship despite, / in spite, of her high grades Do not use despite or in spite of to connect sentences: wrong: *Beth didn't get a scholarship despite / in spite of her grades were high Yet can also be used to connect sentences showing causes and unexpected results, but only between sentences in which the cause is given first: Beth's grades were high yet she didn't get a scholarship Grammar in Conversational Language (#1) The grammar used in written language and the grammar used in conversational language are often quite different In fact, what's normal, common, and acceptable in spoken language is often considered wrong in written language For that reason, we'll take a look, in the next several lessons, at what some of these differences are Yes / No Questions Written English In written language, Yes / No ("simple") questions havethree forms: BE + subject + other words? Is anyone absent? Are you hungry? Are Joe and Bill brothers? Was she at work today? Were Jun's parents born in Japan? AUXILIARY + subject + verb + other words? Is anyone listening? Are you feeling hungry? Are Susie and Jill coming to the party? Can you understand this? Will you help me? Should we stay or leave? Has Fred's wife had her baby yet? Have you seen that movie? Have you had lunch yet? Had they already left when you arrived? Do / Does / Did + subject + verb + other words? Do you understand me? Does your apartment have air conditioning? Did Joe call you last night? Do you your laundry more than once a week? Did your brother well on his exam? Conversational English In everyday conversation, Yes / No questions are often "abbreviated" by omitting some of the words The result is sentences that are common, normal, and acceptable for speaking, but not acceptable in writing There are two main ways that these "abbreviated" questions are made Here's one of them: Omitting BE or the Auxiliary Verb Examples: Is anyone absent? ===> Anyone absent? Are you hungry? ===> You hungry? Was she at work today? ===> She at work today? Is anyone listening? ===> Anyone listening? Are you feeling hungry? ===> You feeling hungry? Are Susie and Jill coming to the party? ===> Susie and Jill coming to the party? Has Fred's wife had her baby yet? ===? Fred's wife had her baby yet? Have you seen that movie? ===> You seen that movie? Have you had lunch yet? ===> You had lunch yet? Had they already left when you arrived? ===>They already left when you arrived? Do you understand me? ===> You understand me? Does your apartment have air conditioning? ===>Your apartment have air conditioning? Did Joe call you last night? ===> Joe call you last night? Do you your laundry more than once a week? ===>You your laundry more than once a week? Did your brother well on his exam? ===>Your brother well on his exam? Special Notes: Notice that BE, do, and have can be both auxiliaries and main verbs Notice that modal auxiliaries are not used in the pattern noted above In "abbreviated" Yes / No questions, certain auxiliaries are often contracted, but the subject is omitted and only the contracted auxiliary is heard: Is anyone absent? ===> 's anyone absent? Is anyone listening? ===> 's anyone listening? Has Fred's wife had her baby yet? ===? 's Fred's wife had her baby yet? Have you seen that movie? ===> 've you seen that movie? Have you had lunch yet? ===> 've you had lunch yet? Had they already left when you arrived? ===> 'd they already left when you arrived? Does your apartment have air conditioning? ===> 's your apartment have air conditioning? Did Joe call you last night? ===> 'd Joe call you last night? Did your brother well on his exam? ===> 'd your brother well on his exam? These contractions sometimes cause sound changes - particularly for / d / and / z / when they come before the / iỳ / sound: 'd your brother well on his exam? (/ d / + / iỳ / = / d3iỳ /) (d3 = j)'s your apartment have air conditioning? (/ z / + / iỳ / = / 3iỳ /) (3 = zh) Remember: The contractions above and the questions with no auxiliary are not acceptable in writing! Grammar in Conversational Language (#2) The grammar used in written language and the grammar used in conversational language are often quite different In fact, what's normal, common, and acceptable in spoken language is often considered wrong in written language For that reason, we'll take a look, in the next several lessons, at what some of these differences are Yes / No Questions (more) Written English In written language, Yes / No ("simple") questions have the forms BE + subject + other words, auxiliary + subject + other words, and Do / Does / Did + subject + other words Conversational English In everyday conversation, Yes / No questions are often "abbreviated" by omitting some of the words In the last lessons, we saw that BE and some auxiliary verbs are often omitted: Is anyone absent? ===> Anyone absent? Was she at work today? ===> She at work today? Is anyone listening? ===> Anyone listening? Do you understand me? ===> You understand me? Did Joe call you last night? ===> Joe call you last night? In everday conversation, you may also hear Yes /No questions in which both the auxiliary verb and the subject are omitted when the subject is you: Are you hungry? ===> Hungry? Are you feeling hungry? ===> Feeling hungry? Can you understand this? ===> Understand this? Will you help me? ===> Help me? Have you seen that movie? ===> Seen that movie? Have you had lunch yet? ===> Had lunch yet? Have you got change for a dollar? ===> Got change for a dollar?? Do you understand me? ===> Understand me? Do you your laundry more than once a week? ===> Do your laundry more than once a week? Special Notes: Because the auxiliary is omitted, some questions can be understood in different ways: Understand me? = Do / Can / Did you understand me? Help me? = Will / Can / Could you help me? Notice that this "abbreviation" is used with you When "abbreviations have other subjects, the subject is not omitted: Are Joe and Bill brothers? ===> Joe and Bill brothers? Were Jun's parents born in Japan? ===> June's parents born in Japan? Is anyone listening? ===> Anyone listening? Has Fred's wife had her baby yet? ===> Fred's wife had her baby yet? Does Mahmoud speak French? ===> Mahmoud speak French? Did Joe call you last night?===> Joe call you last night? Remember: These "abbreviated" Yes / No questions are for speaking They're not acceptable in writing! "Go" + Gerund Gerunds are often used with the verb go.These combinations generally (though not entirely) show leisure-time activities Here are some common go+ gerund combinations: go biking* go boating go bowling go bungee jumping go camping go canoeing go caroling* go climbing go cycling* go dancing go drinking go driving* go fishing go golfing go hiking go hunting go jogging go riding* go running go sailing go scuba diving go shopping go sightseeing go skateboarding go skating go skiing go sledding go surfing go swimming go trick-or-treating* go window shopping Special Notes: Combinations of go and a gerund are not normally used for sports: not used: go basketballing / go baseballing / etc Instead, the combination go play _ is normal: go play basketball / badminton / football / handball / pool / soccer / tennis Some combinations of go and a gerund have special meanings: go biking = (usually) go mountain-bike riding or go motorcycle riding go cycling = go bicycle riding (rather formal!) go driving = drive for enjoyment not because you want to travel to a particular place go riding = go horseback riding Some combinations of go and a gerund are used only at particular times of the year: go caroling = travel from house to house singing Christmas songs (at Christmas only) go trick-or-treating = travel from house to house wearing masks and costumes and asking for treats (children at Hallowe'en) Combinations of go and a gerund can often be made even more specific: go hunting -> go deer hunting / dove hunting / duck hunting / rabbit hunting / squirrel hunting etc go fishing -> go bass fishing / deep-sea fishing / trout fishing etc go climbing -> go mountain climbing / rock climbing Remember: Combinations of go and a gerund are used for leisure-time activities (We not say *go working or *go studying, for example.) Using Conditional Sentences: Real Conditions Conditional ("if") sentences are often challenging for learners of English mostly because there are several different types of "if" sentences and each type has its own meaning and grammar rules Another type of conditional sentence is used for "real" situations for situations that are possible The second type is also for situations that are possible, but the time is not the same as the time in the first type Examples: If she studies, she will get good grades Or She will get good grades if she studies If he is relaxed, he will feel more confident Or He will feel more confident if he is relaxed If she sits in front of the computer for more than two hours, her eyes will hurt Or Her eyes will hurt if she sits in front of the computer for more than two hours If he drinks coffee, he will get a headache Or He will get a headache if he drinks coffee In sentences like the ones above, if does not mean "whenever" or "every time" or "when" and "whenever" or "every time" or "when" cannot be used, in sentences like these, instead of "if." The basic meaning in sentences that show this situation is this: it's possible for one thing to happen (the "if" clause) in the future; when this thing (the "if" clause) happens, the other thing (the clause after the "if" clause) happens (or may happen) "If" sentences like these also show situations that are possible, but the results are not necessarily predictable, and the time in situations like these is not general it's future Special Notes In real, predictable conditional sentences, the verb in the "if" clause is in simple present tense, but the verb in the other clause usually uses will + the simple form of a verb: If I see him, I'll give him your message Or I'll give him your message if I see him If I need help, I'll call you Or I'll call you if I need help In general, not use "will" in the "if" clause: wrong: *If I'll see him, I'll give him your message wrong: *If I'll need help, I'll call you Sometimes, however, will has a special meaning: willingness (volition) When will has this meaning, it can be used in both the "if" clause and in the other clause: If she will study, she will get good grades ("If she is willing to study, she will get good grades.": Maybe she is willing to study and may be she isn't, but her getting good grades depends on her being willing to study.) If you will help me, I will pay you ("If you are willing to help me, I am willing to pay you.") Sometimes may or might are used instead of will in conditional sentences of this type: If I have time, I may call you If I have time, I might call you In sen tences like these, the possibility is less than the possibility shown by will Remember: When if is at the beginning of a conditional sentence, put a comma ( , ) after the if clause, but not use a comma when the if clause is in the middle of a sentence wrong: *If I see him I'll give him your message right: If I see him, I'll give him your message wrong: *I'll call you, if I need help right: I'll call you if I need help Using Conditional Sentences: Present Unreal Conditions In earlier lessons, we looked at unreal conditional sentences in present or future time and at unreal conditional sentences in past time: If I knew the answer, I would tell you ("if" clause: present / general time; second clause: present / future) If he were here, he might be able to help you ("if" clause: present; second clause: present / future) If you would only try, you would succeed ("if" clause: present / future [willingness]; second clause: present / future) If I had known the answer, I would have told you ("if" clause: past; second clause: past) If he had been here, he might have been able to help you ("if" clause: past; second clause: past) Had I had time, I would have helped you ("if" clause: past; second clause: past) Unreal conditional sentences can also, however, be in mixed time The most common type of "mixed" unreal conditional happens when a past "if" clause is used with a present / future second clause: past "if clause" present/future 2nd clause If she had studied, she wouldn't be so worried If he had left yesterday, he would be at home now If I had been born in 1850, I wouldn't be alive today If she hadn't left early, she would still be here If we hadn't worked hard, we wouldn't be finished If you hadn't called me, I wouldn't know about the schedule for tomorrow If he had done his work, he wouldn't be repeating the class If yesterday had been today, today would be tomorrow Using Conditional Sentences:Unreal Conditions #4 In the last lesson, we looked at unreal conditional sentences with mixed time in the "if" clause and the second clause (past in the "if" clause and present / future in the second clause): past "if" clause If she had studied, If he had left yesterday, If I had been born in 1850, If she hadn't left early, If we hadn't worked hard, If you hadn't called me, If he had done his work, If yesterday had been today, present/future 2nd clause she wouldn't be so worried he would be at home now I wouldn't be alive today she would still be here we wouldn't be finished I wouldn't know about the schedule for tomorrow he wouldn't be repeating the class today would be tomorrow "Mixed" conditionals such as those in the sentences aboveare fairly common Another type of "mixed" conditional (which is not very common) is also possible, however: one with a present ("general" time) "if" clause and a past second clause: present* "if" clause If he weren't so lazy, If he studied, If I didn't need help, If a high TOEFL score weren't required, If she were a fast driver, If Julie's father weren't out of the country If I had a better car, If Bob's family were rich, past 2nd clause he would've finished early he would've finishedhis course a year ago I wouldn't have hired a tutor she wouldn't have enrolled in ESL classes she would've been here an hour ago he would've come to her graduation party we would've come in it instead of taking a taxi he wouldn't have needed to get a job Special Note: In all of the sentences above, the verb in the "if" clause is in "general" time: it shows a fact or habit or long, continuing situation The effect of the fact / habit / long, continuing situation is in the past in the sentences above, but it could also be in present / future time: If he weren't so lazy, he would finish early ("if" clause: general / habit; second clause: general) If he studied, he would be finished with his course ("if" clause: general / habit; second clause: present) If I didn't need help, I wouldn't have to hire tutors ("if" clause: general; second clause: general) If a high TOEFL score weren't required, she wouldn't be enrolled in ESL classes ("if" clause: general; second clause: present) Using Adjective Clauses (#1) Adjective clauses (or relative clauses) are like "sentences inside sentences." The "job" of adjective clauses is to modify (describe, identify, make specific) the noun phrases that they follow In their full forms, adjective clauses have several parts: a relative pronoun (or, in some cases, another kind of connecting word), a subject, and a predicate (a verb and, often, other words which follow it) In adjective clauses, the relative pronoun is a kind of connecting word: it joins the information in the clause to the noun phrase that it follows Without the adjective clause, the meaning of the noun phrase (and the sentence) is unclear and incomplete Examples (full forms): I know a person who / that can help you I know a person who(m) / that you can help I know a person whose advice I can trust I know a person to whom I can refer you / I know a person who(m) / that I can refer you to I want a car that / which gets good gas mileage I can't afford the car that / which I really want Types of Adjective Clauses "Subject Pattern" Clauses In this type of adjective clause, the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause: The man who / that talked to us was very friendly Do you know the man who / that talked to us? "Object Pattern" Clauses In this type, the relative pronoun is the object of the clause: The people who(m) / that we met seemed very friendly The people to whom / that we were speaking seemed very friendly / The people who(m) / that we were speaking to seemed very friendly I recently saw the people to whom / that we were talking / I recently saw the people who(m) / that we were talking to Clauses showing possession Here, the relative pronoun is possessive and is attached to another word in the clause: The people whose names are called will work the first shift Do you know the student whose brother won a gold medal in the Olympics? Using Adjective Clauses #2: Subject-Pattern Clauses There are several different types of adjective clauses (or relative clauses), each with its own "rules." Clauses of one type are often called subject-pattern clauses because in this type, the relative pronoun (the word introducing the clauses) is the subject of the clauses: A man spoke to us The man was wearing a green suit -> A man who (that*) was wearing a green suit spoke to us The sentence with who has an adjective clause: who was wearing a green suit In the adjective clause, who is the subject The clause modifies (describes, explains, specifies) the subject of the sentence: a man We hadn't met the man The man was wearing a green suit -> We hadn't met the man who (that*) was wearing a green suit Again, the sentence with who has an adjective clause: who was wearing a green suit In the adjective clause, who is also the subject, but in this sentence, the clause modifies the object: the man The new car is parked outside The new car belongs to Bob -> The new car that (which*) is parked outside belongs to Bob The sentence with that has an adjective clause: that is parked outside In the adjective clause, that is the subject The clause modifies (describes, explains, specifies) the subject of the sentence: the new car I don't like the new car The new car is parked outside -> I don't like the new car that (which*) is parked outside The sentence with that has an adjective clause: that is parked outside In the adjective clause, that is the subject The clause modifies (describes, explains, specifies) the object of the sentence: the new car Special Notes: Adjective clauses come after the nouns that they modify: wrong: A man was wearing a green suit who spoke to us right: A man who was wearing a green suit spoke to us wrong: The new car belongs to Bob that is parked outside right: The new car th at is parked outside belongs to Bob Do not use both a subject pronoun and a relative pronoun: wrong: A man who he was wearing a green suit spoke to us right: A man who was wearing a green suit spoke to us wrong: The new car that it is parked outside belongs to Bob right: The new car that is parked outside belongs to Bob The relative pronouns who and that are used to refer to people, but who is more common The relative pronouns that and which are used to refer to things, but that is more common Using Adjective Clauses #3: More on Subject-Pattern Clauses In addition to the general information already posted, subject-pattern adjective clauses (relative clauses) have some special characteristics: Reductions: Clauses with BE When a subject-pattern adjective clause contains BE, the relative pronoun and BE can often* be omitted: The woman who is talking to Janet is her sister ->The woman talking to Janet is her sister That man who is from Sweden speaks six languages -> That man from Sweden speaks six languages The people who were injured in the accident were friends of mine -> The people injured in the accident were friends of mine The people who have been elected have very high qualifications -> The people elected have very high qualifications The skates that are beside the door belong to my brother -> The skates beside the door belong to my brother The meeting that's on Saturday is very important -> The meeting on Saturday is very important Rephrasing: Clauses with HAVE When an adjective clause contains HAVE (meaning "own," "possess," or "is characterized by"), another kind of change is possible: Do you know anyone who has change for a dollar? -> Do you know anyone with change for a dollar? There's only one person who has blond hair in my class -> There's only one person with blond hair in my class I live in the house that has the palm tree in front -> I live in the house with the palm tree in front She likes food that has lots of hot spices -> She likes food with lots of hot spices Rephrasing: Clauses with BE wearing When adjective clauses contain BE wearing, BE wearing can be changed to in: The woman who is wearing the green silk suit is a doctor > The woman in the green silk suit is a doctor The man who is wearing the red plaid shirt is my brother -> The man in the red plaid shirt is my brother Special Notes: "Dropping" the relative pronoun + BE is most common in these situations: when the verb in the adjective clause is progressive: a man who was wearing a green suit ->a man wearing a green suit the woman who is sitting beside you ->the woman sitting beside you the dog that is barking so loudly ->the dog barking so loudly when the verb in the adjective clause is passive: a watch that was given to me by my grandfather -> a watch given to me by my grandfather jewelry that was made in Indonesia -> jewelry made in Indonesia music that was composed by Chopin -> music composed by Chopin parts that were manufactured in China -> parts manufactured in China when the verb in the adjective clause is followed by a prepositional phrase: the chair that is next to yours -> the chair next to yours a businessman who is from Macau -> a businessman from Macau my appointments that are in the afternoon -> my appointments in the afternoon Note: The relative pronoun and BE are not "dropped" when BE is followed by an adjective: people who are lonely / wrong: *people lonely a movie that is really exciting / wrong: a movie really exciting Do not change a relative pronoun + HAVE when HAVE does not mean "own," "possess," or "is characterized by": a thing that has to be done -> wrong: *a thing with done women who have (="give birth to") premature babies -> wrong: *women with premature babies people who have a good time -> wrong: *people with a good time (wrong) Changing BE wearing to in is common and normal when it refers to people, but not when it refers to animals