362 SECTION IV Pediatric Critical Care Cardiovascular and ADAMTS 13 inhibitors 157,158 In a prospective observa tional study in 9 PICUs, the use of therapeutic plasma exchange in sepsis induced TAMOF[.]
362 S E C T I O N I V Pediatric Critical Care: Cardiovascular and ADAMTS-13 inhibitors.157,158 In a prospective observational study in PICUs, the use of therapeutic plasma exchange in sepsis-induced TAMOF was associated with a decrease in organ dysfunction and a 55% lower adjusted relative risk of 28-day mortality as compared with those not receiving TPE.159 TPE could potentially have improved sepsis-induced organ dysfunction by removing inflammatory mediators, reducing antifibrinolytic molecules, replenishing anticoagulant proteins, and restoring ADAMTS-13 activity to mitigate the dysregulated inflammation, coagulation, and fibrinolytic pathways of sepsis.159 Summary Shock is a life-threatening condition that has a myriad of causes In order to survive shock, recognition and resuscitative efforts must be achieved early, the etiology elucidated, and ongoing monitoring and therapy instituted The astute clinician who recognizes shock, promptly establishes therapy, and continuously assesses response during treatment offers the child the best chance for a quality survival Key References Arikan AA, Zappitelli M, Goldstein SL, Naipaul A, Jefferson LS, Loftis LL Fluid overload is associated with impaired oxygenation and morbidity in critically ill children Pediatr Crit Care Med 2012;13(3):253-258 Carcillo JA, Kuch BA, Han YY, et al Mortality and functional morbidity after use of PALS/APLS by community physicians Pediatrics 2009;124(2):500-508 Davis AL, Carcillo JA, Aneja RK, et al The American College of Critical Care Medicine clinical practice parameters for hemodynamic support of pediatric and neonatal septic shock: executive summary Pediatr Crit Care Med 2017;18(9):884-890 Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016 Crit Care Med 2016 Epub ahead of print Weiss SL, Peters MJ, Alhazzani W, et al Surviving Sepsis Campaign international guidelines for the management of septic shock and sepsisassociated organ dysfunction in children Pediatr Crit Care Med 2020;21(2):e52–e106 The full reference list for this chapter is available at ExpertConsult.com e1 References Weiss SL, Selak MA, Tuluc F, et al Mitochondrial dysfunction in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in pediatric septic shock Pediatr Crit Care Med 2015;16(1):E4-E12 Fink MP Bench-to-bedside review: cytopathic hypoxia Crit Care (London, England) 2002;6(6):491-499 Arques S, Ambrosi P, Gelisse R, Roux E, Lambert M, Habib G Prevalence of angiographic coronary artery disease in patients hospitalized for acute diastolic heart failure without clinical and electrocardiographic evidence of myocardial ischemia on admission Am J Cardiol 2004;94(1):133-135 Gaasch WH Diagnosis and treatment of heart failure based on left ventricular systolic or diastolic dysfunction JAMA 1994;271(16): 1276-1280 Ginghina C, Beladan CC, Iancu M, Calin A, Popescu BA Respiratory maneuvers in echocardiography: a review of clinical applications Cardiovasc Ultrasound 2009;7:42 Cohen J The immunopathogenesis of sepsis Nature 2002;420(6917): 885-891 Ceneviva G, Paschall JA, Maffei F, Carcillo JA Hemodynamic support in fluid-refractory pediatric septic shock Pediatrics 1998; 102(2):E19 Carcillo JA, Pollack MM, Ruttimann UE, Fields AI Sequential physiologic interactions in pediatric cardiogenic and septic shock Crit Care Med 1989;17(1):12-16 Parrillo JE, Parker MM, Natanson C, et al Septic shock in humans Ann Intern Med 1990;113(3):227-242 10 Cairns CB Rude unhinging of the machinery of life: metabolic approaches to hemorrhagic shock Curr Opin Crit Care 2001;7(6): 437-443 11 Fink MP Cytopathic hypoxia: is oxygen use impaired in sepsis as a result of an acquired intrinsic derangement in cellular respiration? Crit Care Clin 2002;18(1):165-175 12 Bruins MJ, Deutz NEP, Soeters PB Aspects of organ protein, amino acid and glucose metabolism in a porcine model of hypermetabolic sepsis Clin Sci 2003;104(2):127-141 13 Maitra SR, Wojnar MM, Lang CH Alterations in tissue glucose uptake during the hyperglycemic and hypoglycemic phases of sepsis Shock 2000;13(5):379-385 14 Crouser ED, Dorinsky PM Metabolic consequences of sepsis Clin Chest Med 1996;17(2):249-261 15 Chinkes D, Demelo E, Zhang X-J, Traber DL, Wolfe RR Increased plasma glucose clearance in sepsis is due to increased exchange between plasma and interstitial fluid Shock 1995;4(5):356-360 16 Reinelt H, Radermacher P, Fischer G, et al Effects of a dobutamineinduced increase in splanchnic blood flow on hepatic metabolic activity in patients with septic shock Anesthesiology 1997;86(4): 818-824 17 Jabbar A, Pingitore A, Pearce SHS, Zaman A, Iervasi G, Razvi S Thyroid hormones and cardiovascular disease Nat Rev Cardiol 2017; 14(1):39-55 18 Radman M, Portman MA Thyroid hormone in the pediatric intensive care unit J Pediatr Intensive Care 2016;5(4):154-161 19 Annane D, Pastores SM, Rochwerg B, et al Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of Critical Illness-Related Corticosteroid Insufficiency (CIRCI) in critically Ill patients (Part I): Society Of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and European Society Of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM) 2017 Intensive Care Med 2017;43(12):1751-1763 20 Marik PE Steroids for sepsis: yes, no or maybe J Thorac Dis 2018;10(suppl 9):S1070-S1073 21 Finsterer J Mitochondriopathies Eur J Neurol 2004;11(3):163-186 22 Bozi LHM, Campos JC, Zambelli VO, Ferreira ND, Ferreira JCB Mitochondrially-targeted treatment strategies Mol Aspects Med 2020;71:100836 23 Saudubray J-M, Garcia-Cazorla À Inborn errors of metabolism overview: pathophysiology, manifestations, evaluation, and management Pediatr Clin North Am 2018;65(2):179-208 24 Hüttemann M, Helling S, Sanderson TH, et al Regulation of mitochondrial respiration and apoptosis through cell signaling: cytochrome C oxidase and cytochrome C in ischemia/reperfusion injury and inflammation Biochim Biophys Acta 2012;1817(4):598-609 25 Proulx F, Joyal JS, Mariscalco MM, Leteurtre S, Leclerc F, Lacroix J The pediatric multiple organ dysfunction syndrome Pediatr Crit Care Med 2009;10(1):12-22 26 Graciano AL, Balko JA, Rahn DS, Ahmad N, Giroir BP The Pediatric Multiple Organ Dysfunction Score (P-MODS): development and validation of an objective scale to measure the severity of multiple organ dysfunction in critically ill children Crit Care Med 2005;33(7):1484-1491 27 Leclerc F, Leteurtre S, Duhamel A, et al Cumulative influence of organ dysfunctions and septic state on mortality of critically ill children Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;171(4):348-353 28 Kraft R, Herndon DN, Finnerty CC, Shahrokhi S, Jeschke MG Occurrence of multiorgan dysfunction in pediatric burn patients Ann Surg 2014;259(2):381-387 29 Lacroix J, Cotting J, Network Paliasip Severity of illness and organ dysfunction scoring in children Pediatr Crit Care Med 2005;6(suppl 3):S126-S134 30 Flancbaum L, Choban PS, Dasta JF Quantitative effects of low-dose dopamine on urine output in oliguric surgical intensive care unit patients Surv Anesthesiol 1994;38(5):276-277 31 Myles PS, Buckland MR, Schenk NJ, et al Effect of “renal-dose” dopamine on renal function following cardiac surgery Surv Anesthesiol 1994;38(2):97 32 Jones D, Bellomo R Renal-dose dopamine: from hypothesis to paradigm to dogma to myth and, finally, superstition? J Intensive Care Med 2005;20(4):199-211 33 Schenarts PJ, Sagraves SG, Bard MR, et al Low-dose dopamine: a physiologically based review Curr Surg 2006;63(3):219-225 34 Sutherland SM, Zappitelli M, Alexander SR, et al Fluid overload and mortality in children receiving continuous renal replacement therapy: the prospective pediatric continuous renal replacement therapy registry Am J Kidney Dis 2010;55(2):316-325 35 Deitch EA The role of intestinal barrier failure and bacterial translocation in the development of systemic infection and multiple organ failure Arch Surg 1990;125(3):403-404 36 Fink MP Gastrointestinal mucosal injury in experimental models of shock, trauma, and sepsis Crit Care Med 1991;19(5):627-641 37 Reilly PM, Bulkley GB Vasoactive mediators and splanchnic perfusion Crit Care Med 1993;21(suppl):S55-S68 38 Cerra FB Selective gut decontamination reduces nosocomial infections and length of stay but not mortality or organ failure in surgical intensive care unit patients Arch Surg 1992;127(2):163-167 39 Cockerill FR, Muller SR, Anhalt JP, et al Prevention of infection in critically ill patients by selective decontamination of the digestive tract Ann Intern Med 1992;117(7):545-553 40 López-Herce J, Menca S, Sánchez C, Santiago MJ, Bustinza A, Vigil D Postpyloric enteral nutrition in the critically ill child with shock: a prospective observational study Nutr J 2008;7(1):6 41 López-Herce J, Santiago MJ, Sánchez C, Menca S, Carrillo A, Vigil D Risk factors for gastrointestinal complications in critically ill children with transpyloric enteral nutrition Eur J Clin Nutr 2007;62(3):395-400 42 Plummer MP, Blaser AR, Deane AM Stress ulceration: prevalence, pathology and association with adverse outcomes Crit Care (London, England) 2014;18(2):213 43 Marik PE, Vasu T, Hirani A, Pachinburavan M Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the new millennium: a systematic review and meta-analysis Crit Care Med 2010;38(11):2222-2228 44 Kenny GP, Notley SR, Gagnon D Direct calorimetry: a brief historical review of its use in the study of human metabolism and thermoregulation Eur J Appl Physiol 2017;117(9):1765-1785 45 Fick AE úber die messung des blutquantums in der herzventrikeln In: Verhandlungen Der Physikalisch-Medizinische Gesellschaft Zu Würzburg Verlag Der Physik-Med Gesellschaft; 1870: XVI–XVII e2 46 Broder G, Weil MH Excess lactate: an index of reversibility of shock in human patients Science 1964;143(3613):1457-1459 47 Andersen LW, Mackenhauer J, Roberts JC, Berg KM, Cocchi MN, Donnino MW Etiology and therapeutic approach to elevated lactate levels Mayo Clin Proc 2013;88(10):1127-1140 48 Ducrocq N, Kimmoun A, Levy B Lactate or Scvo2 as an endpoint in resuscitation of shock states? Minerva Anestesiol 2013;79(9):10491058 49 Batra P, Dwivedi AK, Thakur N Bedside ABG, electrolytes, lactate and procalcitonin in emergency pediatrics Int J Crit Illn Inj Sci 2014;4(3):247-252 50 Hatherill M, McIntyre AG, Wattie M, Murdoch IA Early hyperlactataemia in critically ill children Intensive Care Med 2000;26(3): 314-318 51 Scott HF, Donoghue AJ, Gaieski DF, Marchese RF, Mistry RD The utility of early lactate testing in undifferentiated pediatric systemic inflammatory response syndrome Acad Emerg Med 2012;19(11): 1276-1280 52 Abdalla MO, Aneja R, Dean D, et al Synthesis and characterization of noscapine loaded magnetic polymeric nanoparticles J Magn Magn Mater 2010;322(2):190-196 53 Lawton L, Crouch R, Voegeli D Is lactate an effective clinical marker of outcome for children with major trauma? A literature review Int Emerg Nurs 2016;28:39-45 54 Jat KR, Jhamb U, Gupta VK Serum lactate levels as the predictor of outcome in pediatric septic shock Indian J Crit Care Med 2011; 15(2):102-107 55 Duke TD, Butt W, South M Predictors of mortality and multiple organ failure in children with sepsis Intensive Care Med 1997;23(6):684-692 56 Bloom B, Pott J, Freund Y, Grundlingh J, Harris T: The agreement between abnormal venous lactate and arterial lactate in the ED: a retrospective chart review Am J Emerg Med 2014, 32(6):596-600 57 Walley KR Use of central venous oxygen saturation to guide therapy Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;184(5):514-520 58 Davis AL, Carcillo JA, Aneja RK, et al The American College of Critical Care Medicine clinical practice parameters for hemodynamic support of pediatric and neonatal septic shock: executive summary Pediatr Crit Care Med 2017;18(9):884-890 59 Chawla LS, Zia H, Gutierrez G, Katz NM, Seneff MG, Shah M Lack of equivalence between central and mixed venous oxygen saturation Chest 2004;126(6):1891-1896 60 Brierley J, Peters MJ Distinct hemodynamic patterns of septic shock at presentation to pediatric intensive care Pediatrics 2008;122(4): 752-759 61 Deep A, Goonasekera CD, Wang Y, Brierley J Evolution of haemodynamics and outcome of fluid-refractory septic shock in children Intensive Care Med 2013;39(9):1602-1609 62 De Oliveira CF, De Oliveira DS, Gottschald AF, et al ACCM/PALS haemodynamic support guidelines for paediatric septic shock: an outcomes comparison with and without monitoring central venous oxygen saturation Intensive Care Med 2008;34(6):1065-1075 63 Fink MP Cytopathic hypoxia Is oxygen use impaired in sepsis as a result of an acquired intrinsic derangement in cellular respiration? Crit Care Clin 2002;18(1):165-175 64 Fink MP Cytopathic hypoxia Mitochondrial dysfunction as mechanism contributing to organ dysfunction in sepsis Crit Care Clin 2001;17(1):219-237 65 Pope JV, Jones AE, Gaieski DF, Arnold RC, Trzeciak S, Shapiro NI Multicenter study of central venous oxygen saturation (Scvo(2)) as a predictor of mortality in patients with sepsis Ann Emerg Med 2010;55(1):40-46.e1 66 Donati A, Tibboel D, Ince C Towards integrative physiological monitoring of the critically ill: from cardiovascular to microcirculatory and cellular function monitoring at the bedside Crit Care (London, England) 2013;17(suppl 1):S5 67 Cestero RF, Dent DL Endpoints of resuscitation Surg Clin North Am 2015;95(2):319-336 68 Top APC, Tasker RC, Ince C The microcirculation of the critically ill pediatric patient Crit Care (London, England) 2011;15(2):213 69 Hernandez G, Regueira T, Bruhn A, et al Relationship of systemic, hepatosplanchnic, and microcirculatory perfusion parameters with 6-hour lactate clearance in hyperdynamic septic shock patients: an acute, clinical-physiological, pilot study Ann Intensive Care 2012;2(1):44 70 Van Haren FMP, Sleigh JW, Pickkers P, Van Der Hoeven JG: Gastrointestinal perfusion in septic shock Anaesth Intensive Care 2007;35(5):679-694 71 Sood BG, Mclaughlin K, Cortez J Near-infrared spectroscopy: applications in neonates Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2015;20(3): 164-172 72 Ghanayem NS, Wernovsky G, Hoffman GM Near-infrared spectroscopy as a hemodynamic monitor in critical illness Pediatr Crit Care Med 2011;12(suppl 4):S27-S32 73 Chendrasekhar A, Pillai S, Fagerli JC, Barringer LS, Dulaney J, Timberlake GA Rectal Ph measurement in tracking cardiac performance in a hemorrhagic shock model J Trauma 1996;40(6): 963-967 74 Chung KK, Ryan KL, Rickards CA, et al Progressive reduction in central blood volume is not detected by sublingual capnography Shock (Augusta, GA) 2012;37(6):586-591 75 Marik PE Sublingual capnometry: a non-invasive measure of microcirculatory dysfunction and tissue hypoxia Physiol Meas 2006;27(7): R37-R47 76 Arakaki LSL, Schenkman KA, Ciesielski WA, Shaver JM Muscle oxygenation measurement in humans by noninvasive optical spectroscopy and locally weighted regression Anal Chim Acta 2013; 785:27-33 77 Kopterides P, Theodorakopoulou M, Ilias I, et al Interrelationship between blood and tissue lactate in a general intensive care unit: a subcutaneous adipose tissue microdialysis study on 162 critically ill patients J Crit Care 2012;27(6):742.e9-742.e18 78 Burša F, Pleva L, Máca J, Sklienka P, Ševčík P Tissue ischemia microdialysis assessments following severe traumatic haemorrhagic shock: lactate/pyruvate ratio as a new resuscitation end point? BMC Anesthesiol 2014;14(1):118 79 Nadeau RG, Groner W, Winkelman JW, et al Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging: a new method for study of the microcirculation nature medicine Nat Med 1999;5(10):1209-1212 80 Top APC, Ince C, De Meij N, Van Dijk M, Tibboel D Persistent low microcirculatory vessel density in nonsurvivors of sepsis in pediatric intensive care Crit Care Med 2011;39(1):8-13 81 Branthwaite MA, Bradley RD Measurement of cardiac output by thermal dilution in man J Appl Physiol 1968;24(3):434-438 82 Connors AF, Speroff T, Dawson NV, et al The effectiveness of right heart catheterization in the initial care of critically III patients JAMA 1996;276(11):889-897 83 Connors Jr AF, Dawson NV, Shaw PK, Montenegro HD, Nara AR, Martin L Hemodynamic status in critically ill patients with and without acute heart disease Chest 1990;98(5):1200-1206 84 Shah MR, Hasselblad V, Stevenson LW, et al Impact of the pulmonary artery catheter in critically ill patients: meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials JAMA 2005;294(13):1664-1670 85 Marik PE Noninvasive cardiac output monitors: a state-of the-art review J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2013; 27(1):121-134 86 Marik PE, Baram M Noninvasive hemodynamic monitoring in the intensive care unit Crit Care Clin 2007;23(3):383-400 87 Han YY, Carcillo JA, Dragotta MA, et al Early reversal of pediatricneonatal septic shock by community physicians is associated with improved outcome Pediatrics 2003;112(4):793-799 88 Carcillo JA, Kuch BA, Han YY, et al Mortality and functional morbidity after use of PALS/APLS by community physicians Pediatrics 2009;124(2):500-508 89 Verderber A, Gallagher KJ Effects of bathing, passive range-of-motion exercises, and turning on oxygen consumption in healthy men and women Am J Crit Care 1994;3(5):374-381 e3 90 El-Khatib MF, Chatburn RL, Potts DL, Blumer JL, Smith PG Mechanical ventilators optimized for pediatric use decrease work of breathing and oxygen consumption during pressure-support ventilation Crit Care Med 1994;22(12):1942-1948 91 Manthous CA, Hall JB, Kushner R, Schmidt GA, Russo G, Wood LD The effect of mechanical ventilation on oxygen consumption in critically Ill patients Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151(1): 210-214 92 Thiagarajan RR, Coleman DM, Bratton SL, Watson RS, Martin LD Inspiratory work of breathing is not decreased by flowtriggered sensing during spontaneous breathing in children receiving mechanical ventilation: a preliminary report Pediatr Crit Care Med 2004;5(4):375-378 93 Carcillo JA Role of early fluid resuscitation in pediatric septic shock JAMA 1991;266(9):1242-1245 94 Weiss SL, Peters MJ, Alhazzani W, et al Surviving Sepsis Campaign international guidelines for the management of septic shock and sepsis-associated organ dysfunction in children Pediatr Crit Care Med 2020;21(2):e52–e106 94a Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016 Crit Care Med 2017;45(3):486-552 95 Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock N Engl J Med 2001;345(19):1368-1377 96 Annane D, Siami S, Jaber S, et al Effects of fluid resuscitation with colloids Vs crystalloids on mortality in critically ill patients presenting with hypovolemic shock: the CRISTAL randomized trial JAMA 2013;310(17):1809-1817 97 Caironi P, Tognoni G, Masson S, et al Albumin replacement in patients with severe sepsis or septic shock N Engl J Med 2014; 370(15):1412-1421 98 Dingankar AR, Cave DA, Anand V, et al Albumin 5% versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in children after cardiac surgery Pediatr Crit Care Med 2018;19(9):846-853 99 Stenson EK, Cvijanovich NZ, Anas N, et al Hyperchloremia is associated with complicated course and mortality in pediatric patients with septic shock Pediatr Crit Care Med 2018;19(2): 155-160 100 Barhight MF, Lusk J, Brinton J, et al Hyperchloremia is independently associated with mortality in critically ill children who ultimately require continuous renal replacement Therapy Pediatr Nephrol 2018;33(6):1079-1085 101 Krajewski ML, Raghunathan K, Paluszkiewicz SM, Schermer CR, Shaw AD Meta-analysis of high-versus low-chloride content in perioperative and critical care fluid resuscitation Br J Surg 2015;102(1):24-36 102 Neyra JA, Canepa-Escaro F, Li X, et al Acute kidney injury in critical illness study G: association of hyperchloremia with hospital mortality in critically ill septic patients Crit Care Med 2015;43(9):1938-1944 103 Noritomi DT, Soriano FG, Kellum JA, et al Metabolic acidosis in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock: a longitudinal quantitative study Crit Care Med 2009;37(10):2733-2739 104 Suetrong B, Pisitsak C, Boyd JH, Russell JA, Walley KR Hyperchloremia and moderate increase in serum chloride are associated with acute kidney injury in severe sepsis and septic shock patients Crit Care 2016;20(1):315 105 Semler MW, Self WH, Wanderer JP, et al Balanced crystalloids versus saline in critically ill adults N Engl J Med 2018;378(9): 829-839 106 Weiss SL, Keele L, Balamuth F, et al Crystalloid fluid choice and clinical outcomes in pediatric sepsis: a matched retrospective cohort study J Pediatr 2017;182:304-310.e10 107 Neff LP, Cannon JW, Morrison JJ, Edwards MJ, Spinella PC, Borgman MA Clearly defining pediatric massive transfusion: cutting through the fog and friction with combat data J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2015;78(1):22-28; discussion 28-29 108 Holcomb JB, Del Junco DJ, Fox EE, et al The prospective, observational, multicenter, major trauma transfusion (PROMMTT) study: comparative effectiveness of a time-varying treatment with competing risks JAMA Surg 2013;148(2):127-136 109 Holcomb JB, Tilley BC, Baraniuk S, et al Transfusion of plasma, platelets, and red blood cells in A 1:1:1 Vs A 1:1:2 ratio and mortality in patients with severe trauma: the PROPPR randomized clinical trial JAMA 2015;313(5):471-482 110 Edwards MJ, Lustik MB, Clark ME, Creamer KM, Tuggle D The effects of balanced blood component resuscitation and crystalloid administration in pediatric trauma patients requiring transfusion in Afghanistan and Iraq 2002 to 2012 J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2015;78(2):330-335 111 Nosanov L, Inaba K, Okoye O, et al The impact of blood product ratios in massively transfused pediatric trauma patients Am J Surg 2013;206(5):655-660 112 Cannon JW, Johnson MA, Caskey RC, Borgman MA, Neff LP High ratio plasma resuscitation does not improve survival in pediatric trauma patients J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2017;83(2):211-217 113 Livingston MH, Singh S, Merritt NH Massive transfusion in paediatric and adolescent trauma patients: incidence, patient profile, and outcomes prior to a massive transfusion protocol Injury 2014;45(9):1301-1306 114 Acheampong A, Vincent J-L A positive fluid balance is an independent prognostic factor in patients with sepsis Crit Care 2015; 19(1):251 115 Arikan AA, Zappitelli M, Goldstein SL, Naipaul A, Jefferson LS, Loftis LL Fluid overload is associated with impaired oxygenation and morbidity in critically ill children Pediatr Crit Care Med 2012;13(3):253-258 116 Besen BAMP, Gobatto ALN, Melro LMG, Maciel AT, Park M Fluid and electrolyte overload in critically ill patients: an overview World J Crit Care Med 2015;4(2):116-129 117 Flori HR, Church G, Liu KD, Gildengorin G, Matthay MA Positive fluid balance is associated with higher mortality and prolonged mechanical ventilation in pediatric patients with acute lung injury Crit Care Res Pract 2011;2011:854142 118 Gan H, Cannesson M, Chandler JR, Ansermino JM Predicting fluid responsiveness in children Anesth Analg 2013;117(6):13801392 119 Weber T, Wagner T, Neumann K, Deusch E Low predictability of three different noninvasive methods to determine fluid responsiveness in critically ill children Pediatr Crit Care Med 2015;16(3):E89-E94 120 Choong K, Bohn D, Fraser DD, et al Vasopressin in pediatric vasodilatory shock Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009;180(7):632-639 121 Russell JA, Walley KR, Singer J, et al Vasopressin versus norepinephrine infusion in patients with septic shock N Engl J Med 2008;358(9):877-887 122 Polito A, Parisini E, Ricci Z, Picardo S, Annane D Vasopressin for treatment of vasodilatory shock: an ESICM systematic review and meta-analysis Intensive Care Med 2011;38(1):9-19 123 Moffett BS, Orellana RN Use of fenoldopam to increase urine output in a patient with renal insufficiency secondary to septic shock: a case report Pediatr Crit Care Med 2006;7(6):600-602 124 Ricci Z, Stazi GV, Di Chiara L, et al Fenoldopam in newborn patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass: controlled clinical trial Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2008;7(6):1049-1053 125 Ramaswamy KN, Singhi S, Jayashree M, Bansal A, Nallasamy K Double-blind randomized clinical trial comparing dopamine and epinephrine in pediatric fluid-refractory hypotensive septic shock Pediatr Crit Care Med 2016;17(11):E502-E512 126 Ventura AM, Shieh HH, Bousso A, et al Double-blind prospective randomized controlled trial of dopamine versus epinephrine as first-line vasoactive drugs in pediatric septic shock Crit Care Med 2015;43(11):2292-2302 127 Avni T, Lador A, Lev S, Leibovici L, Paul M, Grossman A Vasopressors for the treatment of septic shock: systematic review and meta-analysis Plos One 2015;10(8):E0129305 e4 128 Vasu TS, Cavallazzi R, Hirani A, Kaplan G, Leiby B, Marik PE Norepinephrine or dopamine for septic shock: systematic review of randomized clinical trials J Intensive Care Med 2012;27(3):172-178 129 Belletti A, Musu M, Silvetti S, et al Non-adrenergic vasopressors in patients with or at risk for vasodilatory shock a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials Plos One 2015; 10(11):E0142605 130 Serpa Neto A, Nassar AP, Cardoso SO, et al Vasopressin and terlipressin in adult vasodilatory shock: a systematic review and metaanalysis of nine randomized controlled trials Crit Care 2012; 16(4):R154 131 James JH, Luchette FA, Mccarter FD, Fischer JE Lactate is an unreliable indicator of tissue hypoxia in injury or sepsis Lancet 1999;354(9177):505-508 132 Krejci V, Hiltebrand LB, Sigurdsson GH Effects of epinephrine, norepinephrine, and phenylephrine on microcirculatory blood flow in the gastrointestinal tract in sepsis Crit Care Med 2006;34(5): 1456-1463 133 Meier-Hellmann A, Reinhart K, Bredle DL, Specht M, Spies CD, Hannemann L Epinephrine impairs splanchnic perfusion in septic shock Crit Care Med 1997;25(3):399-404 134 Aneja RK, Carcillo JA Differences between adult and pediatric septic shock Minerva Anestesiol 2011;77(10):986-992 135 Steinhorn RH Neonatal pulmonary hypertension Pediatr Crit Care Med 2010;11(suppl 2):S79-S84 136 Thomas TC, Smith JM, White PC, Adhikari S Transient neonatal hypocalcemia: presentation and outcomes Pediatrics 2012;129(6): E1461-E1467 137 Chin TK, Friedman WF, Klitzner TS Developmental changes in cardiac myocyte calcium regulation Circ Res 1990;67(3):574-579 138 Baum VC, Palmisano BW The immature heart and anesthesia Anesthesiology 1997;87(6):1529-1548 139 Anderson PA The heart and development Semin Perinatol 1996; 20(6):482-509 140 Parikh S, Saneto R, Falk MJ, et al A modern approach to the treatment of mitochondrial disease Curr Treat Options Neurol 2009; 11(6):414-430 141 Kwan I, Bunn F, Roberts I, Committee WP-HTCS Timing and volume of fluid administration for patients with bleeding Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003;(3):CD002245 142 Spinella PC, Holcomb JB Resuscitation and transfusion principles for traumatic hemorrhagic shock Blood Rev 2009;23:231-240 143 Beekley AC Damage control resuscitation: a sensible approach to the exsanguinating surgical patient Crit Care Med 2008;36(suppl 7): S267-S274 144 Ringe HIG, Varnholt V, Gaedicke G Cardiac rescue with enoximone in volume and catecholamine refractory septic shock Pediatr Crit Care Med 2003;4(4):471-475 145 Hoffman TM, Wernovsky G, Atz AM, et al Efficacy and safety of milrinone in preventing low cardiac output syndrome in infants and children after corrective surgery for congenital heart disease Circulation 2003;107(7):996-1002 146 Kinsella JP, Toews WH, Henry D, Abman SH Selective and sustained pulmonary vasodilation with inhalational nitric oxide therapy in a child with idiopathic pulmonary hypertension J Pediatr 1993;122(5 Pt 1):803-806 147 Pacher R, Globits S, Wutte M, et al Beneficial hemodynamic effects of prostaglandin E1 infusion in catecholamine-dependent heart failure Crit Care Med 1994;22(7):1084-1090 148 Rich GF, Murphy GD, Roos CM, Johns RA Inhaled nitric oxide Anesthesiology 1993;78(6):1028-1035 149 Brierley J, Carcillo JA, Choong K, et al Clinical practice parameters for hemodynamic support of pediatric and neonatal septic shock: 2007 update from the American College of Critical Care Medicine Crit Care Med 2009;37(2):666-688 150 Mink RB, Pollack MM Effect of blood transfusion on oxygen consumption in pediatric septic shock Crit Care Med 1990; 18(10):1087-1091 151 Chan CM, Mitchell AL, Shorr AF Etomidate is associated with mortality and adrenal insufficiency in sepsis: a meta-analysis Crit Care Med 2012;40(11):2945-2953 152 Menon K, Ward RE, Lawson ML, et al A prospective multicenter study of adrenal function in critically ill children Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010;182(2):246-251 153 Tanriverdi F, Schneider HJ, Aimaretti G, Masel BE, Casanueva FF, Kelestimur F Pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injury: a clinical and pathophysiological approach Endocr Rev 2015;36(3): 305-342 154 Alsayali MM, Atkin C, Rahim R, Niggemeyer LE, Doody O, Varma D Traumatic adrenal gland injury: epidemiology and outcomes in a major Australian trauma center Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg 2010;36(6):567-572 155 Annane D, Pastores SM, Rochwerg B, et al Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of Critical illness-Related Corticosteroid Insufficiency (CIRCI) in critically ill patients (Part I): Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and European Society Of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM) 2017 Crit Care Med 2017;45(12): 2078-2088 156 Nguyen TC, Carcillo JA Bench-to-bedside review: thrombocytopeniaassociated multiple organ failure—a newly appreciated syndrome in the critically ill Crit Care 2006;10(6):235 157 Bell WR, Braine HG, Ness PM, Kickler TS Improved survival in thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura-hemolytic uremic syndrome Clinical experience in 108 patients N Engl J Med 1991; 325(6):398-403 158 Veyradier A, Obert B, Houllier A, Meyer D, Girma JP Specific von Willebrand factor-cleaving protease in thrombotic microangiopathies: a study of 111 cases Blood 2001;98(6):1765-1772 159 Fortenberry JD, Nguyen T, Grunwell JR, et al Therapeutic plasma exchange in children with thrombocytopenia-associated multiple organ failure: the thrombocytopenia-associated multiple organ failure network prospective experience Crit Care Med 2019;47(3): E173-E181 ... 1995;151(1): 210-214 92 Thiagarajan RR, Coleman DM, Bratton SL, Watson RS, Martin LD Inspiratory work of breathing is not decreased by flowtriggered sensing during spontaneous breathing in children... Fink MP Cytopathic hypoxia Is oxygen use impaired in sepsis as a result of an acquired intrinsic derangement in cellular respiration? Crit Care Clin 2002;18(1):165-175 64 Fink MP Cytopathic hypoxia... sepsis: yes, no or maybe J Thorac Dis 2018;10(suppl 9):S1070-S1073 21 Finsterer J Mitochondriopathies Eur J Neurol 2004;11(3):163-186 22 Bozi LHM, Campos JC, Zambelli VO, Ferreira ND, Ferreira