automation,production systems and cim (groover)2001

Forward This textbook series is published at a very opportunity time when the discipline of industrial engineering is experiencing a phenomenal growth in China academia and with its increased interests in the utilization of the concepts, methods and tools of industrial engineering in the workplace Effective utilization of these industrial engineering approaches in the workplace should result in increased productivity, quality of work, satisfaction and profitability to the cooperation The books in this series should be most suitable to junior and senior undergraduate students and first year graduate students, and to those in industry who need to solve problems on the design, operation and management of industrial systems Gavriel Salvendy Department of Industrial Engineering, Tsinghua University School of Industrial Engineering, Purdue University April, 2002 Preface The first edition of this hook was published in lW;o under the title Automation, Production Systems, andComputer-A.ided Manufacturing A revision was published in 1981 with about 200 more pages and a slightly different title:AutomarioR, Production Systems, and Computer Integrated Manufacturing The additional pages expanded the coverage of topres like industrial robotics, programmable logic controllers, material handling and storage, and quality control nut much of the hook was very similar to the 191';0lex I By the time I started work on the current volume (technically the second edition of the 1'187 title, but in fact the third generation nfthc 19XO publication) it was clear that the book was in need of a thorough rewriting, New technologies had heen developed and existing technologies had advanced new theories and rnethodoirrgies had emerged in the re"'~lrch ]iterature.and my own understanding of automation and production systems had grown and matured (at least [ think so) Readers of the two previous books will find this new volume to be quite different (rom its predecessors Its organization IS significantly changed, new topics have been added and some topics from the previous editions have been discarded or reduced in coverage, I! is not an exaggeration to say that the entire text has been rewritten (readers will find very few instances where have used the same wording as in the previous editions) Nearly all of the figures are new II is essentially a new book There is a risk in changing the book so much Both ofthe previous edition, have been very successful for Prentice Hall and me Many instructors have adopted the book and have become accustomed to its organization and coverage Many courses have been developed based on the hook What will these instructors think of the new edition with all of its new and different lean.res? My hope is that they will tryout the new book and find it to be a significant improvement over the 1987 edition, as wc·U any othertextbook as on the subject Specifically what are the changes in this new edition?To hegin with, the organization has been substamiallv revised Following two introductory chapters, the hook is organized into rive main parts: I Automation and control technologies: Six chapters on automation, industrial computer control control system components.numerical control, industrial robotics and programmable logic controllers II Material handling technologies: Four chapters covering conventional and automated material handling systems (e.g conveyor systems and automated guided vehicle systems) conventional and automated storage systems, and automatic identification and data capture Ill MaQufacturing systems: Seven chapters on a manufacturing systems taxonomy, single st ation ce.Is group tcchriologv, flexible manufacturing svsterns, manual assembly tines transfer tines and automated assembly Preface xii IV Quality control systems: Four chapters covering quality assurance, statistical process control inspection principles, and inspection technologies [e.g coordinate measuring machines and machine vision) V Manufacturing support systems: Four chapters on product design and CAD/CA~, process planning, production planning and control, and lean production and agile manufacturing Other changes in organization lYl;7 book.Include: and coverage in the current edition, compared with the • Expanded coverage of automation fundamentals, numerical group technology, flexible manufacturing systems, material quality control and inspection inspection technologies, controllers control programming, handling and storage, programmable logic • New chapters or sections on manufacturing systems, single station manufacturing systems, mixed-model assembly line analysis, quality assurance and statistical process control, Taguchi methods, inspection principles and technologies, concurrent engi neering, automatic identification and data collection, lean and agile manufacturing • Consolidatinn of numerical control into one chapter (the old edition had three chapters) • Consolidation Chapters) of industrial robotics into one chapter • The chapters on control systems have been completely dustry practice and technology (the old edition • More quantitative problems on more topics: nearly 4(X) problems which is almost a 50% increase over the 1987 edition • Historical notes describing the development automation technologies had three revised to reflect current in in the new edition, and historical background of many of the With all of these changes and new features, the principle objective of the book remains the same It is a textbook designed primarily for engineering students at the advanced un dergraduatc or beginning graduate levels It has the characteristics of an eugineertng textbook: equations, example problems, diagrams, and end-of-chapter exercises A Solutions Manual is available from Prentice Hall for instructors who adopt the book The book should also be useful for practicing engineers and managers who wish to learn about automation and production systems technologies in modern manufacturing III several chapters, application guidelines are presented to help readers decide whether the particular technology may be appropriate for their operations Acknowledgments Several people should be mentioned for their contributions to the current edition I am grateful to the following: Prof G Srinivasan of the Iridian Institute of Technology, Madras India for his thoughtful reviews of Chapters 15 and 16*; Prof Kalyan Ghosh, Department of Mathematics and Industrial Engineering at Ecole Polytechnique in Montreal, Quebec, Canada for his suggestions on topics for this new edition: Prof Steve Goldman, Department of Philosophy here at Lehigh who reviewed Chapter 27 on lean and agile production and Marcia Hamm Groover, who was very helpful in solving my computer problems for me (she is my-computes tutor" and my wife).l must also thank several graduate students here at Lehigh (past and present) whodirJ some of the research for the book for me: David Abcr, Jose Basto, Pongsak Dulyapraphant, Murat Erkoc, Peter Heugler, Charalambos Marengos, Brant Matthews, Jianbiao Pan Hulya Sener, Steve Wang and Tongquiang Wu I am also grateful for the help and encouragement provided by several editors at Prentice Hall namely Marcia Horton, Bill Stenquist, Laura Curless, and Scott Disanno Finally, I am thankful to all of the instructors who adopted the two previous editions, thus making those books commercially successful so that Prentice Hall would allow me to prepare this new edition xiii About The Author Mikell P Groover is Professor of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering at Lehigh University where he also serves as Director of the Manufacturing Technology Laboratory He holds the following degrees all from Lehigh: B.A (1961) in Arts and Science, B.S (1962) in Mechanical Engineering, M.S (1966) and Ph.D (1969) in Industrial Engineering He is a Registered Professional Engineer in Pennsylvania (since 1972) His industrial experience include, full-time employment at Eastman Kodak Company as a \1anufacturing Engineer Since joining Lehigh,he has done consulting, research, and project work for a number of industrial companies including Ingersoll-Rand, Air Products & Chemicals, Bethlehem Steel, and Hershey Foods His teaching and research areas mctuue manufacturing processes, metal cutting UlCcry automation and robotics, production systems, material handling, facilities planning, and work systems He has received a number uf teaching awards, including the Albert Holzman Outstanding Educator Award from the Institute of Industrial Engineers (lIE) His publications include over 75 technical articles and papers which have appeared in Industrial Engineering, liE Transactions,NAMRC Proceedings,ASME Transactions,IEEE Spectrum, international Journal of Productirm Systems, Encyclopaedia Britannica,5ME Technical Papers, and others Professor Groover's avocation is writing textbooks on topics in manufacturing and automation His previous books are used throughout the world and nave been translated into French, German, Korean, Spanish Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, and Chinese His book Fundamentals oj Modem Manufacturing received the 1996 lIE Joinl Publb"henAward and the 1996 M, Eugene Merchant Manufacturing Textbook Award from the Society of Manufacturing Engineers Dr Groover is a member of the Institute of Industrial Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME), and North American \1anufacturing Research Institute (NAMRI) He is a Fellow of lIE and SME PREVIOUS BOOKS BY THE AUTHOR AUlQmation, Production Sys'tms, and Computer-Aided Manufacturing, Prentice Hall, 1980 CAD/CAM: Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing, Prentice Hall, 1984 (co-authored with E W Zimmers, Jr.) Industrial Robotics: Technology, Programming, and Applications, McGraw-Hill, 1986 (co-authored with M, Weiss, R Nagel and N Odrey) Automation, Production Systems, and Computer Intqp'ated Manufacturing Prentice Hall, 1987 Fundamentals Hall, 1996 oj Modem Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems, Prentice Contents Chapter INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Chapter MANUFACTlIRING OPERATIONS 2.1 2,2 2.3 2.4 2.5 PARTI: Chapter 40 Basic Elements of an Automated System Advanced Automation Functions 71 Levels of Automation 76 63 INDUSTRIALCONTROL SYSTEMS 79 Process Industries versus Discrete Manufacturing Industries Continuous versus Discrete Control 82 Computer Process Control 88 Forms of Computer Process Control % 80 SENSORS,ACTUATORS, AND OTHER CONTROL SYSTEMCOMPONENTS 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Sensors 108 Actuators 111 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 112 Digital-lo-Analog Conversion 115 Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data 61 61 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Chapter 24 Manufacturing Industries and Products 28 Manufacturing Operations 31 Product/Production Relationships 35 Production Concepts and Mathematical Models Costs of Manufacturing Operations 48 AUTOMATION AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES 3.1 3.2 3.3 Chapter Production System Facilities Manufacturi~g Support Systems Automation in Production Systems Manual Labor in Production Systems 14 Automation Principles and Strategies 17 Organization of the Book 21 117 107 vi Contents Chapter NUMERICAL CONTROL 120 ('.1 122 h' 6.3 6.4 137 65 14) h.h of Nt" Positioning Systems Chapter APPENDIX: APT WORD Chapter 179 DEFINITIONS INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS 196 210 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7,) and Related Attributes 21H End Effectors Sensors in Robotics 222 Industrial Robot Applications 222 7,6 Rohol DO 7.7 Chapter Chapter 10 11 AND 267 IDENTIFICATION INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL HANDLING 281 Overview 01 Material Handling Equipment 282 Considerations in Material Handling System Design Tile 10 Principles of Material Handling 288 MATERIAL TRANSPORTSYSTEMS 10.1 10.2 10.3 IDA 10.5 10.6 Chapler 240 Discrete Process Control 257 Ladder Logic Diagrams 2M Programmable Logic Controller268 Personal Computers Using Soh Logie 275 MATERIAL HANDLING TECHNOLOGIES 9.1 9.2 9.3 Chapler Robots DISCRETECONTROL USING PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS AND PERSONALCOMPUTERS H.l S.2 RJ 8,4 Part II: 212 285 292 Industrial Trucks 293 Automated Guided Vehicle Systems 295 Monorails and Other Rail Guided Vehicles 302 Convevor Svstems 30J Crane; and Hoists 309 Analysis of Material Transport Systems 311 STORAGE SYSTEMS 11.1 StelragcSystemPerformance 329 11,2 Storage Location Strategies 331 11.3 Conventional Storage Methods and Equipment 328 332 vii Contents I1.4A~:::::;::::~,:S~O~:~:i~~; ~:~ 335 11.5 E Chapter 12 AUTOMATIC 344 357 DATA CAPTURE 12.1 Overview of Automatic Identification 12.2 Bar Code Technology 361 12.3 Other ADC Technologies 370 PART III: MANUFACTURING Chapter INTRODUCTION 13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Chapter 14 Chapter 1S Chapter 16 Chapter 17 397 398 AND CELLULAR MANUFACTURING 420 Part families 422 Parts Classification and Coding 425 Production Flow Analysis 431 Cellular Manufacturing 434 Application Considerations in Group Technology 439 Quantitative Analysis in Cellular Manufacturing 442 SYSTEMS 460 Whati~anF.\1S'! 462 FMS Components 469 FMS Applications and Benefits 480 FMS Planning and Irnplernentation Issues 485 Quantitative Analysis of Flexible Manufacturing Systems MANUALASSEMBLYUNES 17.1 [7.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.n 17.7 392 CELLS Single Station Manned Workstations Single Station Automated Cells 399 Applications 404 Analysis of Single Station Cells 409 FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 375 SYSTEMS Components of a Manufacturing System 376 Classification of Manufacturing Systems 381 Overview of' the Classification Scheme 388 Manufacturing Progress Functions (Learning Curves) GROUP TECHNOLOGY 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 358 SYSTEMS TO MANUFACTURING SINGLE STATION MANUFACTURING 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Methods Fundamentals of Manual Assernhlv Lines 516 AlternativeA%emblySystcms 523 Design tor Assembly 524 Analysis of Single Model Assembly Lines S2S Line Balancing Algorithms 534 Mixed Mudd Assembly Lines 540 Other Considerations in Assembly Line Design 487 514 552 Contents viii Chapter 18 TRANSFER LINES AND SIMILAR AUTOMATED MANUFACtuRING 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Chapter 19 SYSTEMS 566 Fundamentals of Automated Production lint's 565 Applications of Automated Production Lines 575 Analysis of Transfer Lines with No Internal Storage 579 Analysis of Transfer Lines with Storage Buffers 587 601 AUTOMATEO ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS 19.1 Fundamentals of Automated Assembly Systems 602 19.2 Design for Automated Assembly 606 19.3 Quantitative Analysis ofAsscmbly Systems 610 PART IV: Chapler 20 QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Chapfer 21 22 23 Process Variability and Process Capability Control Charts 658 Other SPC Tools 667 Implementing Statistical Process Control 655 672 INSPECTION PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 Chapter 631 63j 638 STATISTICAl PROCESS CONTROL 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 Chapter TO QUAUTV ASSUIlANCE Quality Defined 633 Traditional and Modern Quality Control Taguchi Methods in Quality Engineering ISO 9000 648 INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.S 23.6 23.7 23.8 681 Inspection Fundamentals 682 Sampling versus lOU'f, Inspection 6B7 Automated Inspection 692 When and Where to Inspect 694 Quantitative Analysis of Inspection 698 Inspection Metrology 712 Contact versus Noncontact Inspection Techniques 717 Conventional Measuring and Gaging Techniques 718 Coordinate Measuring Machines 720 Surface Measurement 736 Machine Vision 738 Other Optical Inspection Techniques 745 Noncontact Nonopticallnspection Technologies 747 711 Chap 842 27 / Lean Production and Agile Manufacturing ability to use information effectively and innovatively, are disungulshing characteristics of an agile competitor To whatever extent tOISpremIse applies to IIgiven organization the skill and knowledge base must be encouraged, developed and exploited for the good of the organization Some of the important objectives include: (1) open communication and information access, (2) openness to learning is pervasive in the organization, (3) learning and knowledge nrc basic attributes of an organization's ability to adapt to change, (4) the organization provides and encourages continuous education and training for all employees, and (5) there is effective management of competency inventory, meaning that the organization knows and capitalizes on the skills and knowledge of its employees 27.2.4 Agility Versus Mass Production Like lean production, agility is often compared with mass production In this comparison we must interpret mass production to include all of the requisites that made it successful, such as the availability of mass markets and the ability to forecast demand for a given product in such mass markets Our comparison is summarized in Table 27.4 Let us elaborate on the items listed in the table In mass production, companies produce large quantities of standardized products The purest form of mass production provides huge volumes of identical products Over the years, the technology of mass production has been refined to allow for minor variations in the product (we call it "mixed-model production") In agile manufacturing, the products are customized The term used to denote this form of production is mass customizetion, which means large quantities of products having unique individual features that have been specified by and/or customized for their respective customers Referring to our PO model of production in Chapter (Section 2.3), In mass production, in mass customisation Q is very large, P is very small, and P is very large, Q is very small (in the extreme Q '" 1), where P = product variety (number of models), and Q "" production quantity (units of each model per year) Along with the trend toward more customized products, today's products have shorter expected market lives Mass production was justified by the existence of very large markets for its mass-produced goods Mass markets have become fragmented, resulting in a greater level of customization for each market In mass production, products are produced based on sales forecasts If the forecast is wrong this can sometimes result in large inventories of finished goods that are slow in sellTABLE 27.4 Mass Comparison of Mass Production and Agile Manufacturing Production Standardized products Long market life expected Produce to torecaer Low information content Single time sales Pticlng by production cost Agile Manufacturing Customized products Short market life expected Produce to order H:gh information content Continuing relationship Pricing by customer value Sec 27.3 I Comparison of lean and Agile ing Agile companies produce to order: customized products for individual customers Inveuiorics of finished products are minimized Products today have a higher information content than products of yesterday This is made possible by computer technology Think of the many products today that operate based on integrated circuits Nearly all consumer appliances are controlled by l C chips, Modern automobiles use engine controllers that are based on microprocessors The personal computer market relies on the ability of the customer to be able to telephone an ROO nurnber for assistance The same is true of many appliances that are complicated to operate, for example, video cassette recorders (VCRs) Manufacturers of rhesc appliances keep adding more and more features to gain competitive advantage, further complicating the products Single time sales was the expectation of the merchandiser before agility The cus tamer bought the product and was not expected to be seen again Today, companies want to nave continuing relationships with their customers, Automobile companies want their cus torners to nave their new cars serviced at the dealer where the car was purchased This provides continuing service business for the dealer, and when the customer finally decide, that the time is right to purchase a new car, the first logical place to look for that new car is at the same dealer Finally, pricing of the product is traditionally based on its cost The manufacturer calculates the costs that went into making thE' product find adds a markup to determine thc price (Example 2.8) But some customers are willing and able to pay more The product may be more valuable to them, especially if it is customized for them The marketplace allows different pricing structures for different customers Instead of standard prices for everyone, different prices are used, according to the value to the customer, The airline industry is a good example of multi-level pricing structure Tourists who fly and stay over Saturday night pay sometimes one third the airfare of business travelers who travel round trip during the same week Automobiles produced in the same final assembly plant on the same body frame can vary in price by two-to-one depending on options and nameplate In the higher education industry, we have different tuition rates for different students We use a different lexicon tor the lower rates than other industries use: We give a discount on the tuition price and call it a scholarship 27.3 COMPARISON OF LEAN AND AGILE Lean production and agile manufacturing are sometimes compared, and in this final section we attempt such a comparison Are lean and agile really different? They certainly use different statements of principles The four principles of lean production are compared with the four principles of agility in Table 27.S We also compare the main features of the TABLE 27.5 Four Principles of lean Production Lean Production Minimi.rewaste Pertect first-tirne quajtty Floxlbteproductton lines Continuo uairnprovamanr and Agile Manufacturing Agile Manufacturing 1, Enrichthecustorner Cooperate Organize Leveragetheimpaetofpeopleand information to enhance to master competitiveness change Chap 27 ! Lean Production and Agile Manufacturing 844 TABLE 27.6 Comparison of Lean Production and Agile Manufacturing Lean Production Enhancement of mass Agile production Break with mass Anributes Manufacturing production; emphasis on mass customization Flexible production for product variety Greater Focus Scopeis enterprtse wtoe on factory operations flexibility for customized products Ernptvasts on supplier management Formation Emphasis use of resources Emphasis on thriVing in environment continuous unpredictable change on efficient Relies on smooth production schedule of virtual Acknowledges enterprises and attempts marked by to be responsive to change two systems in Table 27.6 The emphasis in lean seems to be more on technical and operational issues, whereas agility emphasizes organization and people issues Lean applies mainly to the factory Agility is broader in scope, applicable to the enterprise level and even beyond to the formation of virtual enterprises One might argue that agility represents an evolutionary next phase of lean production Certainly the two systems not compete If anything, agility complements lean It extends lean thinking to the entire organization Agility is to lean a, manufacturing resource planning is to material requirements planning If there is a difference between these two production paradigms, it is in the area of change and change management Lean tries to minimize change, at least external change It attempts to smooth out the ups and downs in the production schedule It attempts to reduce the impact of changeovers on factory operations so that smaller batch sizes and lower inventories are feasible It uses flexible production technology to minimize disruptions caused by design changes By contrast, the philosophy of agility is to embrace change The emphasis is on thriving in an environment marked by continuous and unpredictable change It acknowledges and attempts to be responsive to change, even to be the change agent if it leads to competitive advantage Is this distinction in the way change seems to be viewed in the two systems a fundamental difference? This author would argue that although there may be a difference in viewpoint and perhaps strategy with regard to change, there is no difference in method or approach The capacity of an agile company to adapt to change or to be a change agent depends on its capabilities to have a flexible production system, to minimize the time and cost of changeover, to reduce on-hand inventories of finished products, and to avoid other forms of waste These capabilities belong to a lean production system For a company to be agile, Jl must also be lean REFERENCES ANDERSON D., Agile Product Development for Mass Cuuomizatton Irwin, 1997 A:-;DER~ON, D "Implementing Mass Customizaticn," Agility & Global Competition, Vol No 2, Spring 1~98.pp36-49 [:l] DLAC"K, JT ne Design oflhe Factory with a Future, McUraw-HiJI, Inc., New York, 1991 [4] RYR'JE,J "The Virtual Corporation." 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