Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Social Work in Social Change The Profession and Education of Social Workers in South Africa Nicci Earle Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Published by HSRC Press Private Bag X9182, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa www.hsrcpress.ac.za First published 2008 ISBN 978-0-7969-2208-3 © 2008 Human Sciences Research Council Copyedited by David Merrington Typeset by Robin Taylor Cover design by Flame Design Print management by comPress Distributed in Africa by Blue Weaver Tel: +27 (0) 21 701 4477; Fax: +27 (0) 21 701 7302 www.oneworldbooks.com Distributed in Europe and the United Kingdom by Eurospan Distribution Services (EDS) Tel: +44 (0) 20 7240 0856; Fax: +44 (0) 20 7379 0609 www.eurospanbookstore.com Distributed in North America by Independent Publishers Group (IPG) Call toll-free: (800) 888 4741; Fax: +1 (312) 337 5985 www.ipgbook.com Tables and figures v Preface vii Acknowledgements ix Abbreviations and acronyms xi Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Introduction Methodology Conclusion 12 History of the social work profession: An international overview Social welfare of the South African nation 18 Key changes in the South African welfare system 22 Effects of these changes on social work practice 23 Governance, cooperation and coordination 32 Other social service professions 35 Image of social work 36 Professional organisation 38 Transferability of skills 43 Conclusion 44 14 Demographics and distribution of registered social workers 46 Demand for social workers and the factors fuelling demand 49 Supply of social workers from the South African higher education system Higher education context of changes in social worker supply 63 The Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) 64 Conclusion 68 Introducing the case-study universities 70 Introducing the departments of social work Conclusion 87 77 58 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Choosing to study social work 88 Intake of social work students 92 Output: Perceptions of the quality of social work graduates 98 Throughput: Quantitative input versus output 99 Throughput: Qualitative factors affecting graduate numbers and quality Conclusion 133 Language and culture 135 Gender 139 Drivers’ licences and access to vehicles 142 Career aspirations and opportunities 144 Conclusion 148 109 Tables Range of interviews undertaken that were not linked to the case-study institutions Table 1.2: Range of research activities undertaken at the two case-study universities Table 2.1: HIV prevalence among respondents aged two years and older by sex and age group, 2005 19 Table 3.1: Growth in total number of registered social workers, by gender, 1985–2005 46 Table 3.2: Race and age profile of social workers, 2005 Table 3.3: Social workers – employment status and labour market distribution, 2004 48 Table 3.4: Registered social workers, and social workers involved in direct formal welfare activities, per 100 000 of the population, by province, 2004 49 Table 3.5: Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Table 1.1: New demand for social workers due to population growth at ratio of 23.6 per 100 000, 2005–2015 51 Table 3.6: Replacement demand for social workers, 2005–2015 Table 3.7: Current and projected shortfall in the number of social workers employed in direct welfare based on the implementation of proposed provincial norms 53 Table 3.8: Total additional staff to be recruited by DOH Table 3.9: The requirements for social workers to implement the Children’s Bill Table 3.10: Available data on emigration of South African social workers Table 3.11: Race and gender profile of social work graduates from South African universities, 1992–2003 60 Table 3.12: Breakdown for university enrolment for social work degrees by race, 2000–2003 61 Table 3.13: Race and gender breakdown for total university enrolment for degrees in social work, 2000–2004 62 Table 3.14: Registration for the subject of social work at first and fourth year of study by university, 2000–2004 62 Table 4.1: Breakdown of total enrolments at the University of Limpopo compared against national HE figures, 2005 70 Table 4.2: Breakdown of total enrolments at the University of Stellenbosch compared against national HE figures, 2005 72 Table 4.3: Reasons for choosing to study at Limpopo or Stellenbosch University Table 4.4: Comparison of lecturing staff composition between Limpopo and Stellenbosch universities, March 2006 79 Table 4.5: Comparative social work course fees at the universities of Limpopo and Stellenbosch – 2006 fees 83 Table 5.1: Registrations and passes for social work from first to fourth year at Stellenbosch University, 1996–2005 101 Table 5.2: Throughput of students entering the BA Social Work, 1996–2002 47 52 54 55 56 76 103 v ©HSRC 2008 Table 5.3: Registrations and passes for social work from first to fourth year at Limpopo University, 1994–2005 105 Table 5.4: Throughput calculations for Limpopo University, 1994–2005 Table 5.5: Overview of the practice education programme for social work at Stellenbosch University, 2006 127 Table 5.6: Overview of the practice education programme for social work at Limpopo University, 2006 130 108 Figures Vacancy rates for social workers in the public welfare sector, 2005 Figure 3.2: vi The spiral of disempowerment of social workers in NGOs – the views of labour union representatives 41 Figure 3.1: ©HSRC 2008 Schematic map of the profession and professional education of social workers in South Africa 10 Figure 2.1: Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Figure 1.1: Social work – graduation trends by level of qualification at South African universities, 1992–2003 59 50 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Many of the hopes and aspirations of South Africa’s new democracy depend upon the production of professionals who not only have globally competitive knowledge and skills, but are also ‘socially responsible and conscious of their role in contributing to the national development effort and social transformation’ (DoE, 2001: 5) Furthermore, there is a dire need for more black and female professionals, not only to redress the inequities of the past, but also to broaden the consciousness of social formations that tend to be conservative everywhere in the world In South Africa under apartheid, the professions reflected race and gender hierarchies and to varying extents they still Whether the professions and their education programmes are managing to achieve these ideals is a moot point which the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) hopes to address with a series of studies on professions and professional education, of which this is the second The studies are intended to explore the policy concerns stated above and also to raise issues that have not yet entered policy discourse They will examine each profession through two theoretical lenses, the first being professional labour markets, both national and international, as well as the wider general labour market in South Africa, while the second focuses on the national and international professional milieu By this expression is meant the multiple socioeconomic and political conditions, structural arrangements and professional and educational discourses which shape what it means to be a professional, behaving professionally, at a particular juncture in history Each profession will examine itself through both these lenses and identify key issues of concern which will form the focus of each study and be explored at multiple levels Studies will also include sub-case studies – micro-level explorations of these issues in professional education settings This case study concerns the profession and education of social workers and has been selected for two main reasons First, unlike other professions, social work has a particularly complex relationship with the state through its key role as implementer of social welfare policy Just over one decade ago the South African state changed from the racially discriminatory system of apartheid – in which the government effectively focused on eliminating poverty among, and promoting the interests of, the white minority population – to one of democracy, with a focus on the development of previously disadvantaged groups With social development in the face of an escalating HIV/AIDS epidemic high on the national agenda of the new government, but with social workers considered by this new government to be the foot soldiers of apartheid, the professional milieu was unlikely to escape considerable onslaught Second, social work is one of the few professions that does not demand maths and science for entry, is still considered to be a profession with some status within certain segments of society, and has moreover demonstrated a change in demographics over the past decade from being dominated by white females to being dominated by African females Underlying all the professional challenges of the past decade are misunderstandings and suspicions at multiple levels between the various role-players, as well as the unintended consequences of policies implemented in the absence of a national overarching social development objective and vision vii ©HSRC 2008 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za The completion of this research would not have possible without the help of a number of people Thus I would like to thank: • Dr Mignonne Breier, the project leader of the HSRC Professions Studies series of which this research is a part, for her ongoing guidance and invaluable input; • Professor Antoinette Lombard, Professor Vivienne Bozalek and Margaret Grobbelaar for their insightful feedback on the final draft of this monograph; • All the practising social workers, from their various areas of specialisation, who provided me with insights into the general professional milieu of social work at this time; • My colleagues Dr Renette du Toit, Dr Andrew Paterson, Dr Johan Erasmus, Mariette Visser and Lindi Basson, for their general encouragement and support; • Carin Farevo for her excellent transcriptions; • Iveda Smith and Santie Pruis of the South African Council for Social Service Professions (SACSSP) for providing access to professional statistics and giving willingly of their time; • Dr Jean Skene of the Department of Education, for providing the statistics that underpin the qualitative analysis of social work enrolments and graduations; • Inga Norenius of HSRC Press, for managing the production of this monograph Most importantly, I would like to thank the interviewees who made time to speak to me Owing to the request for anonymity by some, I am unfortunately able to mention only very few by name In connection with the University of Stellenbosch, special thanks must be given to Professor Sulina Green for her enthusiastic and active participation in this research I am grateful also to all the staff of the Stellenbosch social work school, the staff of the social welfare agencies at which the students undertake their practical education, as well as to the students who participated in the focus groups, for their time and involvement Finally, my appreciation goes to Mr Neil Grobbelaar for his effort in respect of extracting social worker enrolment and graduation data for this study At the University of Limpopo, I would like to thank Ms Dineo Seloana for granting permission for the study My thanks also to her and the entire staff complement within the social work school for their open contributions in this work The insights of the Limpopo students who participated in the focus groups are also gratefully acknowledged The staff at agencies providing these students with practical education, who gave freely of their time for this study, have my sincere appreciation ix ©HSRC 2008 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za practice in South Africa at this time The issue of national diversity in respect of language and its links to culture impacts on everyone involved in the education and practice of the profession through issues such as the choice of and integration into a study institution; the ability to adequately read, understand, reproduce and appropriately apply materials studied; the ability to communicate effectively with, and to understand both verbal and non-verbal communication and etiquette of client groups across the country; and to write reports at the standard required by the courts Gender as an issue emerges in relation to individuals’ choice of the career as well as their choice of specialisation within the career, while educators’ willingness and ability to deal with the issue at the theoretical level appears to be determined to a great extent by their own personal perspectives The critical importance of access to vehicles and drivers’ licences emerges primarily as this relates to the lack by many social work students and graduates of access to the resources necessary to acquire this skill Without it, students and practitioners alike are limited in terms of their ability to engage with clients and to make maximum use of limited resources Finally, career aspirations of social work students and graduates appear to be nuanced by personal characteristics such as race and gender, and by the impact of these factors on past access to resources and the need to access finances and financial security into the future, as well as on the differential ease of access to types of work and employer 149 ©HSRC 2008 Conclusion and recommendations The multidimensional lens through which the profession and education of social workers has been viewed in this study includes a review of the professional milieu, a review of the professional labour market conditions and a couple of case studies which illuminate the key issues that emerged Government policy concerns are emphasised because they impact considerably on the professional milieu and the professional labour market, as well as on the professional education of social workers Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za At one level, policy emphasises that South Africa should produce more professionals, of whom many should be black and female While the demographics of the pool of social work professionals has changed from being dominated by white females to being dominated by African females – in line with policy directives – social work graduations have dropped over recent years This latter factor has to with the impact of contradictory policies in other spheres For instance, national funding for social work education does not recognise the four-year professional nature of the qualification, with funding incentives focused away from all humanity fields, even those considered to be scarce skills Additionally, funding has been linked to successful graduations even as policy directives have encouraged higher education institutions to increase access despite the dropping quality of secondary education output Together, these have led to reduced human and other resources within university social work departments at the same time that the admission of students with higher needs has increased, with the result that quality and/or efficiency have had to be sacrificed Outside of this, policies around the funding of welfare in general and the NGO sector in particular have resulted in high workloads and work-related stress, as well as poor working conditions and salaries for social workers within the welfare system The recent positive regrading of social worker salaries in the government welfare sector has, however, not been extended to cover the NGO welfare sector, with the result that conditions there have been exacerbated as particularly black social workers (whom these agencies need in order to effect demographic change) opt for more lucrative government employ These facets of the professional milieu in turn affect the general image of the profession and so impact on the willingness of individuals to make career choices to enter training for the profession The present situation is that the pool of registered social workers is insufficient to meet the current demands of the national welfare system This is evidenced in the high vacancy rate that exists in government employ, with the salary differential biased towards government employment suggesting that vacancies in the private welfare sector are even higher The requirements for social workers to meet the needs of particular policies and legislation, such as the Operational Plan for Comprehensive HIV and AIDS Care, Management and Treatment for South Africa, and the Children’s Bill, are high And if the DSD’s suggested provincial norms and standards are considered in addition to the current vacancy rates, the extent of the shortage of social workers within the South African labour market becomes even starker Real shortages are, however, exacerbated by relative shortages created by the uneven distribution of skills across the country While not one of the provinces has anywhere 150 ©HSRC 2008 near the number of social workers required according to the proposed provincial norms, shortages are lowest in the Gauteng and Western Cape provinces, and highest in the North West, Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces where rural poverty is concentrated Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za While the need and preparation for the implementation of the national NQF Level BSW has been discussed as a key theme in this research, and is likely to have a positive effect on aligning curricula to meet specific exit-level outcomes as well as to equalise the minimum standard of social work education across the country, this is but one element of the much larger group of factors impacting on social work education at this time These other factors span the range from the macro level (national policies), through the meso level (institutional, faculty and departmental factors), to the micro level (individual issues and preferences), and all impact in a variety of ways on both the enrolment and graduation of social workers from the national higher education system Based on the scarce-skill nature of social work, as well as the recent recognition of the value of this profession in meeting national development objectives, a likely key focus over the next couple of years will be an increase in the number of social work graduates Yet this analysis has clearly revealed that increasing graduations from the tertiary education system cannot merely be based on increasing enrolments into the course On the contrary, where increased enrolments are not supported by increasing human resource and other supports required to promote successful graduation in minimum time, increased enrolments are likely to lead to reduced throughput and efficiency as unsuitable individuals admitted drop out or get stuck in the system Listed below are the more specific recommendations for government emerging from this research as they relate first to the education of social workers, and second to their working conditions Education: • Increase the overall number of bursaries available to social work students in order to assist in overcoming the heavy financial burden of studying on poor students • Link the provision of bursaries to carefully considered and clearly defined academic and non-academic selection criteria that will promote the graduation of social workers who are likely to continue in the profession at least in the medium term • Reconsider the funding for social work to tertiary education institutions in line with the scarce-skill nature of the qualification This will allow for increased numbers of staff to support improved quality and quantity of graduate and research output from the various social work departments • Recognise in the revised funding allocation the professional four-year nature of the qualification and the requirement for university-based staff to cover both theory and practical teaching • Encourage the development of personal links between the DSD and the various university departments of social work This can possibly be initiated through encouraging DSD representative attendance at the annual ASASWEI conferences and through constituting a seat for the DSD on the closed ASASWEI AGM Not only will such a relationship promote an increased alignment between government objectives and teaching content within programmes, it will 151 âHSRC 2008 ã • Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za • • additionally allow academia to contribute to policy-making and the DSD to gain a deeper understanding of the problems and issues confronting social work education Support individual schools of social work to increase the numbers of social work students they enrol through assisting in eliminating the specific barriers to increased numbers at each Consider carefully the balance between the maintenance of graduate quality and the need to increase the number of graduations Quantity should not come at the expense of quality, and quality cannot be maintained in the absence of sufficient physical and human resource support Consider funding full-time student supervisor posts in both the NGO and provincial welfare sectors As adequate high-level supervision is critical to maximising the value of practice education in professional development, it is critical that increased human resources are made available within underresourced organisations to cover this workload Not only will such an arrangement be of particular benefit to previously disadvantaged students because of the increased personal attention it affords, but more organisations and departments are likely to become available for student practice education as resources for day-to-day social development activities will not have to be reduced in order to meet student needs Consider implementing as part of the BSW minimum norms for practice hours and levels of student supervision at each academic year This will assist in reducing the extreme variability in practice education structure and quality and through this raise the overall quality of social work training and practice Working conditions: • Salaries of social workers in NGOs need to be improved and equalised across provinces if this sector is to be supported in its demographic transformation at the same time as continuing with its valuable work Government subsidies of the NGO sector need to consider both salary and operational costs related to social worker and auxiliary social worker employment, as well as the need to reward the experience and specialisation of professionals • Bursaries allocated to social work students need to originate from both provincial and national government with some form of national strategic planning governing this distribution across provinces While acknowledging the fact that personal circumstances and needs of recipients may change, bursaries need to be linked very clearly to employment within the direct welfare sector and to defined geographical locations of need This will assist in the more even distribution of social workers and therefore an equalisation of individual workloads • Consider providing bursaries to social work students on behalf of the NGO sector, or allocating funds to NGOs earmarked for the purpose of student bursaries The current system of primarily government bursaries means that most bursary holders will be employed within the government sector upon graduation, exacerbating shortages within the NGO sector • Consider carefully the requirements for social work support resources (e.g., furniture, computers, printers, stationery, offices, vehicles, and drivers’ licences), as well as ways to provide (or subsidise) these cost-effectively across both the NGO and the public welfare sectors • Clearly define the roles of social workers against those of the other social service professions in order to promote coordination between the various groups of 152 âHSRC 2008 ã ã ã Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za • welfare and development workers Increased coordination will lead to increased efficiency in the use of limited resources Urgently implement the revised funding policy for NGOs, which recognises that the implementation of the developmental welfare approach is equally applicable for all social work methods The insufficient funding for NGOs in respect of statutory casework is unsustainable Acknowledge the transformation efforts of the NGO sector and the key role that this sector plays not only in welfare service delivery but also in the education of social work graduates In this light, extend grace in respect of the transformation among social work personnel, especially considering the complex interplay of factors that pull young black social workers from the private welfare sector towards government at this time Develop a policy (similar to that of the UK, which prohibits recruitment of social workers from developing countries) that prohibits unethical recruitment of social workers by government from the NGOs Consider carefully the costs and benefits of implementing a community service year for social work graduates within the direct welfare sector, spanning both NGO and government agencies If such a system can effectively be instigated, with equal financial and human resource support across the two welfare sectors, the positive impacts are likely to be felt in terms of a reduction in the loss of new graduates to temporary or permanent migration; a more even national socio-geographical distribution of social workers; reduced staff turnover and therefore more efficient use of human resources within the NGO sector; the promotion of a culture of supervision and continuous professional development; and the improvement of partnership relations between the government and NGO welfare partners 153 ©HSRC 2008 Developments between March 2006 and July 2007 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za The professional milieu of social work has been constantly changing over the past decade The 15 months between the time the fieldwork was completed (April 2006) and the final submission of the monograph to the HSRC Press (July 2007) were no exception This period saw a number of key developments based on the recommendations of earlier research and the further refinement of policies and strategies These are outlined briefly below: • The DSD released in 2006 the revised Integrated Service Delivery Model (DSD, 2006a) This document states that, while the notion of what constitutes developmental social services has, over the past decade, been a matter of debate, misunderstanding and misinterpretation, a developmental framework that demands interrelated, intersectoral and integrated service delivery from the many sectors and government departments involved is the only solution to the effective implementation of developmental social welfare The model aims to outline the role-players within social development, their key responsibilities, the target groups and scope of each method of social work practice Furthermore, while this document reinforces the proposed norms and standards based on provincial populations, it does indicate that a more detailed investigation is required to incorporate other factors into the determination Norms and Standards for Developmental Social Welfare Services (DSD, 2007), • the result of the DSD’s Thuthukisa Project, was circulated within the department in April 2007 This document forms the foundation of work that aims to move beyond population-based norms Considering all the relevant policies and legislation impacting on service delivery, the document presents a number of standards that will all impact on the calculation of the numbers of social workers required to successfully implement government social development policies – the next stage of the project: – Vacancy rates for critical posts should not exceed 20% and must be filled within three months in alignment with the recruitment policy on appointments – The caseload size to case manager should be no more than : 60 – The social worker to social auxiliary worker ratio should be : • The shift of the social security budget and its administration to SASSA from April 2005, and the supporting division of the welfare and social security budgets in 2007, marks a new beginning for social services as a welfare function The glaring neglect of welfare was made evident through the initial budgetary division, and concerns about the financial sustainability of social security have increased the focus on social development and its objective of ‘moving the poor from the margins of society into the inner circles of economic activity’ (Lombard, 2006) Furthermore, it has been admitted by the DSD that social developmental welfare is critical to support the constitutional, legal and international obligations of its mandate (DSD, 2006a) • Despite approval of additional funds to expand social welfare service delivery through the NGO sector, two factors are of concern: – First, the final Draft Recruitment and Retention Strategy for Social Workers in South Africa (DSD, 2006b) largely confines the strategy to the public welfare sector rather than to both public and private welfare sectors, as was the focus of earlier drafts While the DSD indicated that they were waiting for a 154 ©HSRC 2008 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za • • • • • • • • similar strategy document to emerge from the NGO sector taking their specific circumstances into account, the coordinator of NACOSS argued that issues related particularly to the budget required to undertake such work would likely restrict the private welfare sector’s ability to deliver such a strategy, and thus lead to continued inequalities – Second, Lombard (2006) notes that ‘the allocations in the 2006 budget were not sufficient to remove the backlog caused by the neglect, or to repair the damage It cannot be erased in this decade and, possibly never will …’ Government’s efforts have not gone unnoticed, however Commitments to increased NGO subsidisation, on top of the recognition of social work as a scarce skill and the Draft Recruitment and Retention Strategy, as well as the positive changes that have thus far arisen from this, have reportedly turned the tide in respect of rebuilding the relationship between the NGO and state welfare partners In certain provinces, NGO subsidies have been raised, while the Gauteng Social Welfare Summit in October 2006 was probably the largest step forward in rebuilding the relationship between government and NGOs Forthcoming from this event is the working committee currently addressing norms and standards for social service delivery for the purposes of government funding (Lombard, 2007, personal correspondence) Government has released money, which is already disbursed to provinces, for the training of 000 social auxiliary workers to ameliorate the scarcity of social workers The plan is to have identified and entered all 000 into training before the end of 2007 (SACSSP, 2007, personal correspondence) The outcome of a voting process held in March 2007 was that one unified professional association for social work will be established This will not take the form of a federation as initially anticipated Existing professional associations will have the option of continuing with specific-interest functions if they wish Following the establishment of the association in September 2007, membership of the IFSW will be pursued (SACSSP, 2007, personal correspondence) The Social Service Professions Act (110 of 1978) is in the process of being redrafted and a Bill will soon be on the table The reason given is that the Act is outdated and does not address the challenges of the social services sector It is likely that the Bill will be tabled this financial year (2007/08), following which the regulations will be drawn up (SACSSP, 2007) Supporting this revision process has been a demarcation exercise commissioned by the SACSSP and conducted by Professor Daisy Makofane, which sets out to define the roles and responsibilities of the various social service professions relative to each other Once accepted by the SACSSP at the meeting at the end of November 2007, a summarised version of the research will be publicly available (SACSSP, 2007, personal correspondence) Compulsory community service for social work graduates will form part of the revised Social Service Professions Act The SACSSP reports that all provinces were in support of this move However, the exact details of this community service still need to be determined (SACSSP, 2007, personal correspondence) The Professional Board for Social work, in collaboration with the SGB, has finalised the policy on RPL for submission to and consideration by the SACSSP (SACSSP, 2007, personal correspondence) The SGB for Social Work has been requested to investigate specific standards for social work practice training in respect of potentially getting the HWSETA to cover the costs of the fourth year as a learnership-type 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