Historic District of Old Québec, Canada The Economic Impacts of World Heritage Site Designation on Local Communities 1 The Economic Impacts of Tourism 1.1 Introduction The economic aspect of the triple bottom line of sustainability and tourism development is discussed in Section 1.2 in Chapter This section discusses the economic impacts of tourism on local communities and economic changes in local communities caused by tourism Page (2015, © T Jimura 2019 World Heritage Sites (T Jimura) p. 383) states: ‘The economic measurement of tourism has a long history in many countries.’ This history can be traced back to the 1930s (Page, 2015), and possible economic benefits have been a key justification for tourism development (Page and Connell, 2014) The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) summarizes the scope to which the terms used to evaluate and analyse, ‘tourism industry’ and ‘tourism economy’, can be defined (Page and Connell, 81 82 Chapter 2014) ‘Tourism industry’ describes the direct impacts of travel demand associated with tourism services, including transport, accommodation, catering, attractions and entertainment (Page and Connell, 2014) and they can be seen as the direct economic impacts of tourism However, direct economic impacts cover only a small part of the economic impacts of tourism since ‘tourism economy’ signifies much wider impacts of flow-through of travel and tourism demand across the economy of a country, region or city, and e ncompasses ‘tourism industry’ as well as businesses that support and work with the industry (Page and Connell, 2014) Such businesses include utilities (e.g water), retailers (e.g supermarkets) and security (e.g nightclub security services) and are regarded as the indirect economic impacts of tourism Furthermore, the spending by employees of the tourism industry is understood as the induced economic impacts of tourism These three types of economic impacts of tourism are summarized in Fig 6.1, and Sections 1.2–1.7 argue major economic impacts of tourism at a national, regional or local level countries (Page and Connell, 2014) In tourism, it includes all receipts and expenditure The tourism balance of payments is calculated on the basis of the International Monetary Fund recommendations (Switzerland Federal Statistical Office, 2016) The following terms explain the tourism balance of payments, employing Japan as an example: • • Receipts – measures the value of services and goods purchased by overseas tourists during their stay in Japan Expenditure – measures the value of services and goods purchased by Japanese people while they stay abroad The tourism balance of payments for Japan is improved if overseas tourists spend more during their stay in Japan and Japanese tourists spend less while they stay in other countries In 2014, Japan’s tourism balance of payments turned positive for the first time in 55 years (Nikkei Asian Review, 2015) thanks to the recent inbound tourism boom 1.2 Tourism balance of payments 1.3 National, local and household income The balance of payments account for a country is a record of transactions during a period of time between residents of that country and other Gross domestic product (GDP) counts all of the outputs generated within a country GDP consists of both goods and services produced for sale DIRECT Economic Impacts of Tourism INDIRECT Economic Impacts of Tourism Services: Transport Accommodation Catering, attractions and entertainment Sources of spending: Residents, businesses and governments Tourism investment spending Governments’ collective tourism spending Impacts of purchases from suppliers INDUCED Economic Impacts of Tourism Daily goods Daily services Rent/mortgage Clothing Hobbies Food and drink TOTAL Economic Impacts of Tourism • On GDP • On income • On employment Fig 6.1. Three different types of economic impacts of tourism (From: Page and Connell, 2014; Page, 2015) The Economic Impacts of World Heritage Site Designation on Local Communities in the market and also some non-market production (e.g educational services) provided by the national government (Callen, 2012) Tourism tends to make a greater contribution to countries that are remote islands or relatively small or less-developed countries (LDCs) For instance, in 2016, 40.9% of total GDP for the Maldives was derived from tourism (WTTC, 2017) Tourism can also bring income to local governments and local people Local governments’ income through tourism is affected by diverse factors such as appeal as a tourist destination, length of visitors’ stay, amount of money visitors spend for products offered by local providers and tourism tax, if applicable While the majority of local people obtain economic benefits indirectly, it tends to be difficult for them to feel that tourism is financially beneficial for them An exceptional case is local inhabitants who own and/ or run tourism businesses, and can gain economic benefits directly from tourism However, it should be remembered that an increase in local government’s income from tourism does not always lead to an increase in local people’s income from tourism Shackley (1994, 1996) investigates tourism in the Himalayan kingdom of Lo, and concludes that the Nepalese authorities gained economic benefit from tourism by approving a gradual increase in the limit of visitor numbers; however, the authorities could not generate any income for local people 1.4 Variety of local businesses, dependency on tourism and opportunity costs If tourism is developed appropriately, new businesses could be attracted to a tourist destination (Jimura, 2007a, 2011), although this is not always true, as the case of Brugge, Belgium, studied by Jansen-Verbeke (1995), corroborates Tourism can also attract domestic and/or foreign investment (Mishra et al., 2011) An increase in the number of businesses can contribute to diversifying and strengthening the local economy (Sharpley, 2002) Consequently, the structure and balance of economic activities at a local level can be improved thanks to tourism (Page and Hall, 2003) All of the above are positive economic impacts of tourism However, it must be remarked 83 that heavy dependence on a single industry is risky for a country, region or city, especially in the long run (Jimura, 2007a) This signifies that a tourist destination may face economic difficulties if it relies heavily on tourism and fails to diversify main industries for the local economy (Page and Connell, 2014) For example, Sharpley (2001) examines tourism in Cyprus and argues that the country relies on tourism and has used tourism as a means of its economic and social development However, such reliance on tourism can be problematic for the destination because tourism development often reflects a polarization of development between tourism ‘honeypots’ and peripheral areas (Jimura, 2007a) Ultimately, island destinations such as Cyprus can become even more dependent on tourism and a limited number of tourism businesses (Sharpley, 2001) Opportunity costs should also be counted in relation to tourism and its economic impacts, and are related to the time, effort and financial resources spent for developing tourism at the expense of other activities or areas of investment (Page and Connell, 2014) This implies that if local governments invest in tourism development, then this amount of money cannot be used for other purposes This may result in sacrificing the needs of local communities or other industries that require investment in other areas (Page and Connell, 2014) Additionally, if local governments invest too much in tourism development, it can be a financial burden for them and local communities and may damage the balance of the local economy (Jimura, 2007a) 1.5 Employment The ability of tourism to generate employment opportunities is another justification governments use to develop tourism The destinations where traditional industries have been declining would be particularly eager to develop tourism to create new employment opportunities for local people (Jimura, 2007a, 2011) Tourism can trigger the inflow of people to a tourist destination (Lane, 2009) and the concentration of people can attract various businesses, which can lead to new employment for local inhabitants (ICOMOS International Committee on Cultural Tourism, 1999) This positive change is not 84 Chapter limited to within the tourism industry and can also be observed in industries relevant to tourism (e.g Snyman and Spenceley, 2012) Furthermore, tourism can also protect existing employment opportunities in the tourism and relevant industries (Sharpley and Sharpley, 1997) and can provide young people and/or women in traditional societies with employment opportunities (Jimura, 2007a) On the other hand, there are a few drawbacks The most fundamental downside is that it is difficult to measure the actual impact of tourism on employment opportunities, and positive impacts of tourism on employment are sometimes overestimated (Jimura, 2007a) Probably, the number and types of jobs tourism has generated would be the most significant data to assess tourism impacts; however, even these jobs are likely to be scattered across different sectors both within and outside the tourism industry; hence they cannot be easily identified (Law, 1993) Regarding this challenge, categorizing types of employment from the viewpoint of its relation to tourism would be useful According to Page and Connell (2014, p 283): [T]here are three different kinds of employment which can be generated by tourism: • • • Direct employment – jobs created as a result of visitor expenditure and directly supporting tourism activity (e.g hotels); Indirect employment – jobs created within the tourism supply sector but not as a direct result of tourism activity; and Induced employment – jobs created as a result of tourism expenditure as local residents spend money earned from tourism The second downside is that the tourist destinations where tourism is a key industry tend to have a high level of unemployment It is confirmed, for instance, in Italy (Massidda and Etzo, 2012) Third, tourism-related jobs are often described as undesirable jobs due to the following characteristics: low-paid; low-skilled; part-time and/or seasonal; low status; high rate of turnover; gendered – over-dependent on female labour; and for young people However, some of these negative characteristics can be overcome through various measures For example, running an event or festival during off- seasons (e.g Jorvik Viking Festival in February, York, UK) or promoting business tourism that is inclined to be less seasonal compared with leisure tourism can improve the issues in seasonality Furthermore, tourism-related jobs are seen positively by local people in some destinations (e.g Jimura, 2007a) This view is more likely to be confirmed among local communities whose traditional industries are in decline, which are in remote rural areas or which are situated in a LDC 1.6 Inflation and increase in the cost of living Tourism can cause inflation and increase the cost of living for local residents (e.g Andereck and Nyaupane, 2011) This issue can affect the price of property, daily goods and services, all of which are important for local people’s daily lives The main cause of this phenomenon is that the level of demand for these products can increase because of the influx of people and businesses from outside local communities (Page and Hall, 2003) It may be beneficial for local people who sell their properties (Page and Connell, 2014); however, it makes life challenging for the majority of local people A very high demand for property is observed in popular tourist destinations (e.g San Francisco and Shanghai), although tourism is not the only reason for inflation and increase in the cost of living Under such circumstances, the availability of properties may be limited, and local inhabitants may need to compete with newcomers to obtain properties This issue is also confirmed in various studies adopting resident surveys (e.g Long, 2012) 1.7 Leakage and tourism multiplier Leakages of tourist expenditure from the national, regional or local economy can happen in tourist destinations Small, remote and less-developed tourist destinations are more likely to suffer from leakage than large, well-developed destinations This is because the latter would have industries and businesses that can supply products required to satisfy visitors’ needs within destinations, while the former often need to purchase these products from other cities or regions, or even The Economic Impacts of World Heritage Site Designation on Local Communities i mport them from other countries Multinational corporations (MNCs) are a prime example of foreign investor and external ownership of tourism-related businesses such as accommodation According to Page and Connell (2014), leakages can occur through: • • • • • repatriation of profits generated from foreign capital investment (e.g part of economic benefits gained locally through tourism activities goes to a country where the headquarters of a large company is located); vertical integration of tourism businesses (e.g large MNCs control local tourism businesses); not sourcing products locally (e.g limited economic benefits and employment opportunities, especially senior positions, for local people); payments for holidays made in a tourist- generating country (e.g Japanese holiday makers pay the fee for a package tour to a foreign country that is organized and sold by a Japanese tour operator); and ownership of transport (e.g national airlines) To make tourism economically beneficial for local communities, regions or countries, the amount and proportion of economic benefit from tourism must be maximized and kept circulated within them for as long as possible To this end, the concept of the tourism multiplier is crucial Concerning income, the tourism multiplier means how much income is generated by a certain amount of visitor spending There are three types of spending (Lejárraga and Walkenhorst, 2010): • • • direct spending – money spent by visitors for tourism services (e.g accommodation, food and drink, attractions); indirect or generated spending – money spent by tourism businesses for products to support their businesses (e.g local restaurants purchase vegetables from local farmers); and induced or additional spending – local residents who earn income directly or indirectly from direct spending (visitor expenditure) spend this money locally for the products required for their daily lives In short, it is significant for tourist destinations to minimize leakages and maximize multiplier 85 effects to develop tourism in an economically sustainable manner 2 The Economic Impacts of WH Status and Tourism at WHSs 2.1 Access to funding World Heritage (hereafter WH) status has an established value in terms of the authenticity and integrity of heritage (see Section in Chapter 1) and is a strong brand in tourism marketing (see Section 2.1 in Chapter 4) In reality, however, many WHSs suffer from a lack of funding, resources and e xpertise, although part of the aim of the WH Convention is to encourage international cooperation and exchange of knowledge, expertise and funds (Leask and Fyall, 2006) WH status does not secure automatic funding from any public or private organizations (Jimura, 2007a, 2016) at an international, national, regional or local level One of the main benefits for WHSs and their States Parties is access to the World Heritage Fund (WHF) This scheme for heritage conservation is one of the positive economic impacts of WH status The WHF was established in 1972 under Article 15 of the WH Convention (UNESCO World Heritage Centre (WHC), 2017a) The WHF is financed mainly by obligatory contributions from States Parties States Parties can request financial aid from the WHF whose annual budget is around US$3–4 million (WHC, 2017a, 2017b) However, the WH Committee allocates the funds, considering the urgency of requests, and the most threatened WHSs are prioritized (WHC, 2017a, 2017b) Therefore it is unlikely that affluent States Parties would gain financial support from the WHF That is to say, the WHSs in the poorest States Parties are inclined to have more serious issues in conservation than those in developed States Parties (Brumann, 2014) The main cause of this issue is a limited annual budget for the WHF (Brumann, 2014) In the early 2000s, the issue of a lack of financial resources for WHS conservation was raised (e.g Ashworth and van der Aa, 2002) as the number of WHSs had been increasing every year; although, more recently, Meskell (2014) states that the WHF has reached its peak because of a gradual increase in the number of States Parties To deal with this problem, UNESCO has 86 Chapter been implementing various measures For example, it established the World Heritage Partnerships for Conservation Initiative (PACT) in 2002, and considers that leading corporations and organizations in the world should be suitable as partners for WHS conservation (WHC, 2017c) PACT has helped raise awareness, mobilize funds and implement activities through creative and innovative partnerships (WHC, 2017c) Besides, at its 40th session in 2016, the WH Committee decided to start a consultation process over an annual fee for WHSs on a voluntary basis by asking the Secretariat to send out a survey to States Parties and their local administrations in charge of WHS management to gain feedback on the question of paying an annual fee to the WHF, depending on their financial autonomy and capacity to pay, and to report back to the WH Committee (WHC, 2017a) 2.2 Financial support from governments and private organizations WHSs may be able to gain funding for conservation from their national, regional and/or local government In the cases of two natural WHSs in Thailand, Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex and Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuaries, the majority of the financial budget for conservation comes from state coffers (Bangkok Post, 2011) Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range (WHS Kii) is a cultural WHS in Japan consisting of Shinto shrines, Buddhist temples and pilgrimage routes Jimura (2016) states that there is no funding from public or private sources for conservation of shrines and temples for being part of the WHS In Japan, an exceptional case of when properties listed as WHSs could get financial support from governments is when they are hit by natural disasters When Kumano Nachi Taisha, part of WHS Kii, was hit by Typhoon Talas in 2011, the Japanese government covered the entire repair cost of the property (Jimura, 2016) On the other hand, the owners of listed historic houses in the Ogimachi district (WHS Ogimachi), which is part of Historic Villages of Shirakawa-go and Gokayama (cultural WHS in Japan), can acquire financial support from government to conserve their historic houses (Jimura, 2007a, 2016) Jimura (2016) suggests that such an inconsistency in the levels of financial support from public bodies stems chiefly from the difference in the nature of listed properties, between those in WHS Ogimachi (private houses that need to be maintained by their owners) and those in WHS Kii (great Shinto shrines or Buddhist temples that could receive donations from spiritual followers or other visitors) Donations and increased admission fees are common measures adopted by cultural and natural WHSs to raise money for their conservation activities (e.g Himeji-jo, cultural WHS in Japan) Concerning natural WHSs in Thailand, WH status helps to draw attention from foreign conservation groups, which provide forest conservation projects with financial support (Bangkok Post, 2011) As such, there are WHSs whose conservation activities have been supported financially by a foreign and/or private organization or charity For instance, the Prince Claus Fund is based in Amsterdam and supported by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Dutch Postcode Lottery (Prince Claus Fund, 2017) The Fund fiscally assists the restoration works of the Patan Palace Complex, which is part of Kathmandu Valley (cultural WHS in Nepal) (Prince Claus Fund, 2015) Sophia University, Japan, has been supporting the conservation activities for Angkor (cultural WHS in Cambodia) since 1996, focusing on the development of human resources required for its conservation activities (Sophia University, 2016) Their activities have been financially supported by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan and a private company, the All Nippon Airways (ANA) group Supporting such conservation activities for valuable heritage also acts as the ANA group’s corporate social responsibility activities and is useful to enhance the image of the company 3 Economic Changes in and around World Heritage Sites and Local People’s Views 3.1 Diversity and strength of local economy 3.1.1 Changes Section 1.4 discusses the variety of local businesses, dependency on tourism and opportunity The Economic Impacts of World Heritage Site Designation on Local Communities costs Section 3.1.1 considers these points more specifically for WHSs WH status may make a good contribution to an increase in visitor numbers, although this does not apply to all WHSs (see Chapters and 4) If the visitor numbers to WHSs increase after WHS inscription, existing businesses related to tourism can flourish and new businesses whose main target is visitors can also be attracted to WHSs or tourist destinations possessing a WHS This could also lead to an increase in the amount of investment from public and private organizations Even if an increase in visitor numbers is not obvious currently, WHSs or tourist destinations holding a WHS may still reap such economic benefits in the future Consequently, the structure and balance of local economic activities can be enhanced It is vital for tourist destinations, including WHSs, to diversify and strengthen local industries and businesses to maintain or enhance their economic sustainability It is particularly crucial for the destinations where their traditional industries have been declining Such destinations are often situated in rural areas or remote islands, and their long-established industries would be in the primary or secondary sectors (see Section 1.2 in Chapter 3) Under such a circumstance, these destinations desperately need to foster alternative industries that can make them financially sustainable (MacDonald and Jolliffe, 2003) Tourism can contribute to the above mission, utilizing the established value of WH status as a brand that visitors can trust However, if tourist destinations fail to diversify and strengthen local industries, or develop the local economy only through tourism, negative issues may arise A typical example of such problems is the economic overdependence on tourism (e.g Ardahaey, 2011) Generally, tourism is seen as an unstable industry since it can be easily affected by external factors (e.g exchange rates) that are out of the control of WHSs or destinations with a WHS Over-reliance on tourism would be an issue for WHSs or destinations owning a WHS, which have seen a large increase in visitor numbers after WHS listing and not have main industries other than tourism In some WHSs, however, an increase in visitor numbers might be temporary (Cuccia, 2012) (see Section 2.3 in Chapter 4) 87 3.1.2 Local people’s views Local inhabitants’ views towards the changes in the diversity of local businesses and the strength of the local economy at WHSs since WHS listing have been examined by researchers As a whole, their views are positive, but there are some exceptions For instance, overall, local residents living in the islands in Ha Long Bay (WHS Ha Long Bay) (natural WHS in Vietnam) agree with the statements, ‘Tourism is one of the most important industries supporting the local economy’ and ‘Tourism creates new business opportunities for local residents’ (Long, 2012) Vareiro et al (2013) explore local people’s perceptions of tourism at Historic Centre of Guimarães (WHS Guimarães) (cultural WHS in Portugal) and report that nearly 80% of local people involved in the survey deem that tourism helps to supply new services for local residents Su and Wall (2014) examine the Mutianyu village (WHS Mutianyu) located adjacent to the Mutianyu part of The Great Wall (cultural WHS in China), and explore villagers’ perceptions of the impact of WH status and tourism through a resident survey Their survey shows that 100% of the respondents agree with the statement ‘Tourism development improved local economic development’ (Su and Wall, 2014) Jimura (2007a) conducted resident surveys at WHS Ogimachi in Japan and WHS Saltaire in the UK and asked local residents to indicate their views towards how the variety of local businesses had changed since WHS inscription In and around WHS Ogimachi, 50% of the respondents think that local businesses have more or much more variety after WHS listing, and only 2% think they have less variety According to the interviews with local experts in heritage, tourism and/or community matters, most businesses newly developed since WHS inscription are services Some of them are businesses mainly for visitors (e.g hot-spring hotel), while others are for both local inhabitants and visitors (e.g convenience store) The views of local experts suggest that a shift in the main industries from primary and secondary industries to service industries has occurred (Jimura, 2007a, 2011) In and around WHS Saltaire, whilst 54.7% of the respondents deem that the variety of local businesses has not changed since WHS listing, 34% feel that they have much more variety or more variety In the case of WHS Saltaire, most local 88 Chapter businesses that increased after WHS listing are mainly for visitors (e.g souvenir shops) One of the local specialists reveals that a local bookshop closed and this business was associated more with local residents’ daily life than visitors’ needs In summary, it could be stated that WH status and tourism after WHS listing can diversify the variety of local businesses for visitors and local people; however, the businesses chiefly for visitors are likely to be developed much more than those that are mainly for local people The importance of tourism as a local industry has been enhanced in WHS Mutianyu, WHS Ogimachi and WHS Saltaire after listing Of these, the importance of tourism seems to be highest for WHS Ogimachi, while it does not appear to be salient for WHS Saltaire 3.2 Employment opportunities 3.2.1 Changes Section 1.5 examines the relationships between tourism and employment opportunities Section 3.2.1 investigates these points more specifically for WHSs Tourism can create employment opportunities for local inhabitants, and WH status can also so by working with tourism However, this may signify a shift in the main industries of WHSs or tourist destinations having a WHS (Jimura, 2007a, 2011) where employment opportunities in traditional industries (e.g agriculture) have been decreasing Some local residents who once worked in such traditional industries may need to change their jobs and start working in tourism industries, whilst others may change their jobs willingly as they believe that tourism- related jobs are more ideal than their former jobs It should also be noted that outsiders may start running tourism-related businesses in WHSs after WHS listing They may create additional employment opportunities on site, but they not always employ local people This can happen, particularly in the case of a WHS situated in a small destination or rural area That is because it is often difficult for the businesses owned and run by outsiders to find local people they want to employ In academic research, traditionally and dominantly, tourism-related jobs have been discussed as rather undesirable jobs, noting their nature to be seasonal, part-time, low-paid and low-skilled, and relying heavily on female labour Overall, these characteristics still seem to apply to tourism-related jobs in and around WHSs In a different sense, however, tourism-related jobs at WHSs can encourage women’s participation in society, especially in non-western countries The characteristics of tourism-related jobs, such as part-time or seasonal, can be seen as negative From another perspective, however, such characteristics could give workers flexibility regarding time and working hours This would allow women who cannot work full-time to contribute to their society by working part-time, for instance at restaurants in and around WHSs Thanks to their cultural and religious backgrounds, working is seen as a virtue by Muslim countries (Zou, 2015) This belief is shared by Islamic and Confucian countries For example, this view is common among Japanese people (Japan Business, 2017), especially among elderly people The aforementioned characteristics of tourism- related jobs also fit elderly people For instance, many old people work as tourist guides for Buddhist Monuments in the Horyu-ji Area (cultural WHS) WH status can also encourage young people to return to their home town In and around WHS Ogimachi, many young people moved to a big city, and most of them did not return to their home town (Shirakawa-mura) before WHS listing due to a lack of employment opportunities and lack of recognition of the village’s ‘value’ (Jimura, 2007a, 2011) The number of young people returning to the village has increased after WHS designation as the village could give more employment opportunities to them, and they could also acknowledge the ‘value’ of their village thanks to WH status (Jimura, 2007a, 2011) Hence, it is understandable that this trend is more noticeable in the WHS than in its surrounding areas (Jimura, 2007a, 2011) The most serious issue with seasonality would be a large difference in visitor numbers between high and low seasons Some WHSs and destinations having a WHS have been tackling this issue by adopting diverse measures For instance, Ogimachi, Ainokura and Suganuma villages included in Historic Villages of Shirakawa- go and Gokayama (cultural WHS in Japan) host lighting-up events, originally in winter only and now throughout the year, thanks to its popularity among visitors Their WH status enhances the recognition of the villages and events and is effective in attracting more visitors, especially in The Economic Impacts of World Heritage Site Designation on Local Communities winter Some destinations having a WHS (e.g Budapest, including the Banks of the Danube, the Buda Castle Quarter and Andrássy Avenue (cultural WHS in Hungary)) have been promoting business tourism, since it can be less seasonal than leisure tourism (Christie et al., 2013) 3.2.2 Local people’s views Local residents’ opinions about employment opportunities at WHSs since WHS designation are also examined by scholars According to Su and Wall’s (2014) resident survey at WHS Mutianyu, 74% of the respondents agreed with the statement ‘Tourism development provided more local job opportunity.’ The research conducted by Okech (2010) examines Lamu Old Town (WHS Lamu) (cultural WHS in Kenya) and Stone Town of Zanzibar (WHS Zanzibar) (cultural WHS in Tanzania) and indicates that local people believe that tourism and WH status has made a good contribution to an increase in employment opportunities Similar findings are reported by Long (2012) in his study on WHS Ha Long Bay and by Vareiro et al (2013) in their research on WHS Guimarães According to Jimura (2007a), in and around WHS Ogimachi, 49.7% of local inhabitants involved in his survey deemed that employment opportunities had not changed since WHS inscription, although 44.7% believed that they had increased, and 0.7% thought that they had increased considerably On the contrary, the views of local specialists in heritage, tourism and/or community matters obtained through interviews demonstrate more positive results They believe that employment opportunities for local inhabitants have increased after WHS listing in and around the WHS; and accommodation, restaurants, cafés and souvenir shops have created job opportunities for local people Two out of seven interviewees state that housewives in and around the WHS started working in souvenir shops, restaurants or cafés This can support women’s advancement in the workforce through tourism at WHSs (see Section 3.2.1) In and around WHS Saltaire, 54.7% of the respondents felt that there had been no changes in employment opportunities since WHS designation, although 32.7% said that they had increased and 1.3% viewed that they had increased much Like WHS Ogimachi, the experts’ views of the changes in employment opportunities are more positive than 89 those of local inhabitants According to them, overall job opportunities appear to have increased across the tourism sector after WH listing, especially in retail businesses In summary, it could be declared that WH status and tourism since WHS listing can increase employment opportunities for local inhabitants in and around WHSs However, a certain proportion of local residents may feel that they have not changed or the increase is not evident Most newly created job opportunities appear to be in tourism-related businesses In the case of WHS Ogimachi in Japan, women’s social advancement in the workforce seems to have been enhanced through tourism with WH status Furthermore, WH status and tourism could give opportunities for elderly people to work at their own pace in non-western countries such as Muslim and Confucian countries where working is seen as a virtue 3.3 Income 3.3.1 Changes The positive changes in the diversity and strength of local businesses and employment opportunities for local communities can lead to an increase in income at household, local, regional and national levels Section 1.3 debates the relationships between tourism and national, local and household income; and Section 1.7 considers those between tourism and leakage and multiplier effects Section 3.3.1 discusses the topics related to income more specifically at WHSs Tourism can increase the level of income of households in or around WHSs whose family members own, run or are engaged in tourism- related businesses This could result in an increase in income at a local, regional or national level Nowadays, many countries introduce taxation that charges on consumers’ spending on various products This type of tax is called consumption tax (Japan), value added tax (UK) or sales tax (USA) Therefore, extra excursionists and tourists in a destination lead to more income for local, regional or national governments through taxation In recent years, a growing number of countries or cities have also introduced the tourist tax This tax is called city, h otel, lodging, room or overnight-stay tax, depending on the destination It seems to have become increasingly common for 90 Chapter (too) popular destinations that already have a large number of visitors In the case of Italy, how much tourist tax is applied differs by city and hotel (e.g five-star hotels charge more than four-star hotels), and many cities set the maximum number of nights the tourist tax is charged (e.g seven nights) For example, as of 2016, Verona, which is listed as City of Verona (cultural WHS), charges a hotel guest of a five-star hotel 3€ per person per night (ExpertoItaly, 2015) In Japan, only Tokyo and Osaka charge the accommodation tax as of 2017, although it was announced in 2017 that Kyoto, which has a number of properties included in Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto (cultural WHS), had started considering the introduction of a tourist tax in 2018 (Nikkei.com, 2017) Tokyo has the National Museum of Western Art, which is part of The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement (cultural WHS) As of 2017, the hotels in Tokyo charge 100 Japanese yen if the accommodation fee is between 10,000 and 14,999 Japanese yen per person per night, and 200 Japanese yen if the fee is 15,000 Japanese yen or higher per person per night (Tokyo Metropolitan Government Bureau of Taxation, n.d.) The accommodation sector in tourist destinations that adopt tourist tax is likely to have negative views on it since the tax may discourage tourists to stay overnight National, regional or local governments may justify the introduction of the tourist tax by emphasizing that the income gained through the tourist tax can be used to improve facilities for visitors and local communities, and to protect local environments from negative tourism i mpacts Although tourism at WHSs may receive a substantial amount of income through visitors’ spending, it is important to consider how much of the spending stays in WHSs or tourist destinations having a WHS and how long it keeps circulating within the area For instance, Aapravasi Ghat (cultural WHS in Mauritius) is a complex of buildings that was used to accept migrants from India The WHS is located in Port Louis There are a number of accommodation facilities owned or run by international hotel chains along the beaches near Port Louis and across the east, west, north and south coasts of Mauritius (e.g Shangri-La) They are luxury hotel brands whose main target is high-end guests According to Lejárraga and Walkenhorst (2010), this type of hotel guest tends to prefer branded goods (e.g wines) to local goods However, such branded goods cannot be supplied by local producers and the hotels must import them from other countries to satisfy the needs of these guests In this case, the level of leakages of visitor spending from the national economy would be high, and WH status and tourism cannot make enough economic contribution to remote island destinations like Mauritius This issue is commonly found in the WHSs or destinations with a WHS in the east and LDCs such as Historic Areas of Istanbul (cultural WHS in Turkey) 3.3.2 Local people’s views Local inhabitants’ attitudes towards the changes in the income at WHSs after WHS inscription have been investigated by researchers The aforementioned Su and Wall’s (2014) survey demonstrates that 87% of the respondents agreed with the statement, ‘Tourism development increased local income.’ According to Jimura (2007a), in and around WHS Ogimachi, it is local people who are engaged in tourism-related jobs who deem that their income has increased most after WHS listing, although 58% of the residents who joined the survey think their income has not changed since WHS designation Three out of seven local experts in heritage, tourism and/or community matters who were interviewed also indicated that there had been an increase in the income among local residents who are engaged in tourism-related jobs, whilst two indicated that there had been an increase across the village, including WHS Ogimachi On the contrary, the responses of local people and specialists in and around WHS Saltaire are not so positive; 80.7% of local people who were involved in the survey viewed that their income had not changed after WHS inscription The differences of opinions among the residents of these two WHSs seem to centre around the level of economic significance of tourism and WH status for the local economy Xiang and Wall (2015) conducted a resident survey with local people in Taiqian, which used to be located near the bottom of the route up to Mount Taishan (mixed WHS in China) According to their research, the Taishan Administrative Committee (TAC) relocated more than half 156 Chapter 10 burdens for local communities As tourism is often affected by external factors, tourism-related businesses at WHSs can be influenced negatively, for instance, by economic (e.g economic downturns), sociocultural (e.g terrorism) and environmental (e.g natural disasters) factors Moreover, the inflow of strangers encouraged by WH status may limit positive changes in employment opportunities for local people, government revenue and household income Furthermore, if tourism businesses are owned and run by outsiders who are not based in WHSs or destinations having a WHS, it could increase leakages of tourism income from the local economy Local communities at WHSs might also struggle with an increase in the cost of living, although the impact of WH status and/or tourism advanced after WHS designation on this issue appears to be limited Local communities deem that WH status and tourism since WHS listing have diversified local businesses, particularly tourism businesses The downside is that tourism businesses serve the needs of visitors rather than those of local people In local people’s views, furthermore, local businesses tend to be more diversified only at WHSs where their core industries were not tourism before WHS designation Local inhabitants are likely to feel that employment opportunities in and around WHSs have not changed or increased, especially in tourism businesses, whilst local specialists such as the tourism department of the local government tend to have a more positive view Overall, financial benefits of tourism and/or WH status not seem to be recognized by local people who are not engaged in tourism businesses Stated differently, indirect economic benefits for the whole local community (e.g improvements in local facilities) would be difficult for them to recognize This issue seems to be more or less common to most WHSs and tourist destinations in the world, and there would not be obvious dissimilarities in this tendency between those in the east and the west 6.3 Sociocultural changes Sociocultural impacts of WHS listing must be examined in the context of sociocultural backgrounds of the places where WHSs are situated There are sociocultural issues unique to or prominent in WHSs (see Section in Chapter 7) Among them, a split between a WHS and its neighbouring areas is peculiarly noteworthy as eventually it can abolish the unity of local communities Because of the nature of this issue, it can occur in and around cultural WHSs that are designated as specific areas where local people reside Even if a site is listed as a WHS it would be hard to apply the WH Convention in practice and to achieve the WH mission, if such an emotional gap exists between local communities in and around a WHS To regain the accord, local residents living in a WHS should comprehend the meaning of WH status for the wider community as well as the WHS itself Through this, a WHS can support the further success of the whole municipality as a tourist destination, as a place to live and as a stronghold of the WHS The apprehensions about heritage conservation after WHS listing are another key issue In principle, everything in the world keeps changing, and the author believes that this axiom also applies to WHSs and their settings In this sense, it is natural that priorities for key stakeholders at a local level such as local communities also continue changing as time passes This means that the importance of WH status in a local context may decline in the future Furthermore, the condition of heritage and its settings would also keep altering even after WHS listing It would be almost impossible for humankind to control the changes in natural and built environments, particularly the former Thus, the integrity (and authenticity) of a WHS may decline and its OUV may also deteriorate in the future It might be only an eastern or Japanese approach; however, in the author’s opinion, even WHSs cannot last for ever in a constantly changing world Indeed, losing WH status or inclusion in the LWHD is regrettable, but can be understandable and should be accepted, if it is caused by the aforementioned factors and/or based on a consensus of all key stakeholders, particularly those at a local level By contrast, something ordinary for our generation (e.g current architectural styles) might be valued as heritage by future generations and listed as WHSs in the future This is the same as what our generation has been doing about things inherited from the past that were not valued as heritage by the people in the past (e.g industrial sites) As a whole, it would be rather challenging to differentiate sociocultural changes initiated or encouraged by WH status from those caused Reflection (Summary) or promoted by tourism advanced by WH status This is primarily because these two are frequently united and work together for local communities in and around WHSs positively or negatively Of diverse distinctive sociocultural changes that are confirmed at WHSs, the changes in interactions and cultural exchanges between local people and visitors can be seen as the most positive and common ones It is deplorable that in some cases ties among local people can be weakened by WH status and/or tourism As a site becomes more popular as a tourist destination because of WH status, an increasing number of local people may begin to pursue their personal (economic) advantages rather than the collective well-being of the local community This is associated with the growth of materialism and lack of respect for local culture and social customs 6.4 Environmental changes Relative to economic and sociocultural impacts of WHS designation on local communities, its environmental impacts on the communities, particularly direct impacts, appear to be rather limited That is because environmental changes in local communities are likely to be initiated or enhanced by tourism activities that are advanced by WH status As a whole, tourism tends to cause negative changes in the natural environment, while it can instigate positive changes in the built environment such as infrastructures WHC (2017k) lists 14 primary factors that affect the OUV of WHSs: Buildings and development; Transportation infrastructure; Utilities or service infrastructure; Pollution; Biological resource use/modification; Physical resource extraction; Local conditions affecting physical fabric; Social/cultural uses of heritage; Other human activities; 10 Climate change and severe weather events; 11 Sudden ecological or geological events; 12 Invasive/alien species or hyper-abundant species; 13 Management and institutional factors; and 14 Other factor(s) Tourism is included in two primary factors, ‘Buildings and development’ and ‘Social/cultural 157 uses of heritage’, as a secondary factor Of these primary factors, ‘Climate change and severe weather events’ is seen as the most intimidating threat to WHS conservation (The Guardian, 2014; IUCN, 2014), and human actions can be seen as one of the main causes of climate change Obviously, natural disasters such as tsunamis and earthquakes may damage WHSs and their OUV, but it is almost impossible for humankind to prevent them However, human actions are deeply associated with the majority of the aforementioned primary factors and can negatively influence the OUV of WHSs in a direct or indirect way Simultaneously, however, it is also true that there are numerous measures human beings can take for the conservation of the natural environment surrounding WHSs The changes in the natural environment that have been directly caused by WH status seem to be very limited, but these changes appear to be positive ones from local communities’ viewpoints Concerning the changes in built environment (infrastructures), generally, it is challenging to identify whether they are immediately triggered by WH status In many cases, however, WH status does not appear to directly cause such changes Stated differently, WH status can encourage tourism development at WHSs or destinations holding a WHS, and then advanced tourism might provoke positive rather than negative changes in local infrastructures Usually, local people not seem to feel that the changes in infrastructure are caused directly by WH status In addition, even indirect impacts of WH status or direct impacts of tourism advanced by the status on the changes in local infrastructure are not always confirmed by local people 7 Contemporary Developments in and around World Heritage Sites There are three fundamental contemporary developments in the concept of WHSs, namely the LWHD, the idea of ‘Cultural Landscapes’ and the notion of ‘Historic Urban Landscapes’ (hereafter HULs) The LWHD aims to warn about the worrying conditions of WHSs and encourage a series of corrective actions, while the concepts of Cultural Landscapes and HULs intend to make the concept of WHSs and the shape of the WHL as complete as possible Thanks to these notions, 158 Chapter 10 the evidence of outstanding communications between humans and the natural environment can be valued properly, and the use of historic urban environments in people’s lifestyles can be valued Contemporary developments around the concept of WHSs are divided into culture-focused and nature-focused concepts Along with WHSs, Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) and Memory of the World (MoW) are key schemes adopted by UNESCO for conservation of cultural heritage at a global level and complement each other to guarantee conservation of a variety of cultural heritage in different countries The idea of ICH is imperative for the conservation of intangible heritage as well as intangible components of tangible heritage According to UNESCO (2016), the concept of ICH consists of: the focus of BRs is conservation of the biosphere Collaboration among nations and a holistic strategy at an international level are necessary for BR conservation because of the massive extent and composite nature of BRs To this end, BRs in the world also establish the World Network of Biosphere Reserves that stimulates support across national borders and international partnership through exchanging knowledge and experience, building capacity and promoting best practices (UNESCO, 2017) Overall, UGGs and BRs not seem to show a clear imbalance in various facets between the west, the east and other regions of the world; though these schemes and WHSs would need to be reconsidered from time to time and improved further to tackle the dangers that can arise a) Oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the ICH; b) Performing arts; c) Social practices, rituals and festive events; d) Knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; and e) Traditional craftsmanship 8 Suggested Academic Models The emphasis of the concept of MoW is the upkeep of ‘documentary heritage’ Relative to WHSs and ICH, MoW is immature as a main initiative for cultural heritage conversation Overall, IHC and MoW not seem to have an obvious disparity between the west, the east and other regions of the world However, there are still areas for enhancement in both conceptual and practical aspects of the three initiatives, especially MoW, for conservation of cultural heritage in the future Together with WHSs, UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGs) and Biosphere Reserves (BRs) are core systems implemented by UNESCO for conservation of natural heritage at an international level, and work mutually to ensure conservation of various natural heritage in diverse regions of the world The concept of UGGs pays attention to ‘geological’ heritage that is not embedded enough in other UNESCO plans for natural heritage conservation Furthermore, creation of a Global Geoparks Network is notable as it could encourage interactions among participants from various countries and their mutual cooperation at a global level On the other hand, The author proposes models that explain the main interrelationships: • • • • between WH status, tourism and local residents’ views towards principal c hanges in local people’s minds (Fig 5.2 in Chapter 5); between WH status, tourism and local inhabitants’ views towards economic changes in local communities (Fig 6.2 in Chapter 6); between WH status, tourism and local people’s views towards sociocultural changes in local communities (Fig 7.2 in Chapter 7); and between WH status, tourism and local residents’ views towards environmental changes in local communities (Fig 8.1 in Chapter 8) In Figures 6.2, 7.2 and 8.1, the colour shades of the arrows between ‘WH Status’ and ‘Changes in Local Community’ signify the strength of a cause-and-effect relationship between these two: the arrow in Figure 7.2 shows the strongest relationship and the one in Figure 8.1 displays the weakest In light of these four frameworks and key outcomes in previous chapters, the author suggests a model that summarizes the key interrelationships between WHSs, WH status, tourism, local communities and conservation activities as the foremost deliverables of this book (see Fig 10.1) Reflection (Summary) 159 World Heritage Sites Outstanding Universal Value Selection Criteria Integrity & Authenticity World Heritage Status Impacts \Impacts Impacts Changes in Local Communities Interactions Changes in Tourism Changes in Conservation Activities Fig 10.1. World Heritage Sites: tourism, local communities and conservation activities (From: the author) References Ashworth, G.J and Tunbridge, J.E (2000) The Tourist-Historic City: Retrospect and Prospect of Managing the Heritage City Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK Cameron, C and Rössler, M (2016) Many Voices, One Vision: The Early Years of the World Heritage Convention Routledge, Abingdon, UK Curtin, S (2005) Nature, wild animals and tourism: an experiential view Journal of Ecotourism 4(1), 1–15 Davies, R.J and Ikeno, O (eds) (2002) The Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese Culture Tuttle Publishing, Rutland, Vermont Graburn, N (1995) The past in the present in Japan: nostalgia and neo-traditionalism in contemporary Japanese domestic tourism In: Butler, R.W and Pearce, D (eds) Change in Tourism: People, Places, Processes Routledge, Abingdon, UK, pp 47–70 The Guardian (2014) More than a third of natural world heritage sites face ‘significant threats’ Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/nov/13/more-than-a-third-of-natural-world-heritagesites-face-significant-threats (accessed 19 December 2017) IUCN (2014) World Heritage outlook Available at: http://worldheritageoutlook.iucn.org/ (accessed 19 December 2017) Jimura, T (2003) Visitor management – as a professional responsibility of the various site managers (Maritime Greenwich – Cultural World Heritage Site) Master’s thesis, University of Greenwich, London Jimura, T (2007) The impact of World Heritage Site designation on local communities – a comparative study of Ogimachi (Japan) and Saltaire (UK) Doctoral thesis, Nottingham Trent University, UK Jimura, T (2011) The impact of world heritage site designation on local communities – a case study of Ogimachi, Shirakawa-mura, Japan Tourism Management 32(2), 288–296 Jimura, T (2017) Architecture and tourism: creation and re-creation of Europe in Japan Paper presented at Architecture and Tourism: Fictions, Simulacra, Virtualities conference, Paris, 4–7 July Book of abstracts, pp 65–66 Leask, A (2006) World Heritage Site designation In: Leask, A and Fyall, A (eds) Managing World Heritage Sites Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK, pp 5–19 Meng, F (2010) Individualism/collectivism and group travel behavior: a cross-cultural perspective International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research 4(4), 340–351 Orbasli, A (2000) Tourists in Historic Towns E & F.N Spon, London Oyadomari, M (1989) The rise and fall of the nature conservation movement in Japan in relation to some cultural values Environmental Management 13(1), 23–33 160 Chapter 10 Sakurai, T (2014) Communicating about communicating with kami (deities): an ethnographic study of Washinomiya Saibara Kagura Journal of Communication & Religion 37(3), 83–99 Shackley, M (1998) Introduction – World Cultural Heritage Sites In: Shackley, M (ed.) 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categories 38 Asia 115 poaching 120 attachment to place of residence 73 attitudinal changes 72 attractions 52 Australia National Parks 58 Uluru-Kata Tjuta 60 Austria, Hallstatt-Dachstein Salzkammergut Cultural Landscape 12 authenticity 43, 150–151 attributes of 150 British people 12 conservation 151 fake version 12–13 Hallstat in China 12 heritage 12–13 Huis Ten Bosch 12 Japan 151 Japanese attitude towards 12 balancing 40, 44 Balinese culture 74 Barcelona 91 basic infrastructure, local communities 117–118 biosphere reserves 141–142 birth place 71 Boeing 787 Dreamliner 116 bottom-up approach 24 boundaries 4 brand 55, 56 branded goods 90 brochures 50 brown bears 116 Buddhism 11, 150 monuments in the Horyu-ji Area 59, 88 shogyo-mujo 13 temples 55–56 and pilgrimage routes 28, 86, 102 buffer zones building materials, difference between East and West 151 buildings exteriors, appearance of 14 groups of 6, 25, 137 161 162 Index built environment cities and planning 152 conservation of 37 infrastructure 117–119, 123–124 and natural environment 115 business 93 services 87 business tourism 89 Canada, Acadia 74 Cancun (Mexico) 116, 117 Cape Coast (Ghana) 73 Chile, Rapa Nui National Park China dams 121 Three Gorges 121 Great Wall 13 Hallstatt in 12 Huangshan 71 Lijiang Old Town 44 Mutianyu 73, 87, 89, 91, 123, 124 Taiqian 90 Christianity 13 cities Barcelona 91 Bath 10 Cancun 116, 117 Cologne Cathedral 54 Edinburgh 125 Hiroshima 53, 60 Liverpool 101, 102, 132, 133 Osaka 90 and planning 13–14, 151–152 Tokyo 90 Venice 91 Verona 90 York 118 civil conflicts, and natural environment 122 climate change 119, 121–122 Sundarbans 121 collectivism 14, 150 Cologne Cathedral 54 communities and societies 11, 150 see also local communities community concept 66 development 66–68 Confucian countries, employment opportunities 88 Confucianism 11, 150 conservation activities local communities 159 management 152, 153 authenticity 151 of built environment 37 culture 13 European movement 14 heritage 24, 45 interest in 72 Japan 151 local awareness of 115 nature 45 plans 42 United Kingdom 13 visitation 26 conservation science, African 23 conservationists 23 construction 13 contemporary development 131–132 main concepts 158–159 cost of living 93 Costiera Amalfitana (Italy) 55 cultural atmosphere 37 cultural differences 69 cultural heritage, categories cultural landscapes 4, 134, 135, 136 culture conservation 13 local 37, 42 and nature 13 and religion 11–12, 150 scrap and build 27 culture-focused concepts 137–138 Daimon-zaka (WHS Kii) 28 dams 120–121 China 121 Three Gorges Dam 121 danger list see List of World Heritage in Danger (LWHD) dark tourism 53 de-differentiation 23 de-marketing 59, 61 deforestation 116 degradation 38 Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), natural environment 122 designation 4, 7–9, destination cluster 51–52 cultural atmosphere 37 development 116 image 53, 54 management 61 marketing 50–52, 61 positioning 55 recognition, image 37 tourist 43, 115 destination marketing organisation (DMO) 50, 57 development accommodation 124 community 66–68 Index 163 contemporary 131–132, 158–159 destination 116 economic 39 sustainable 35, 44 tourism 39–40, 40–41, 42 transport 118 triple bottom line (TBL) 36–37 differentiation, uniqueness 55 dissolved boundaries 23 diversification, local industries and business 35 documents, responsibilities and duties 26 drama tourism 53 Dresden Elbe Valley (Germany) 7, 25, 101, 104, 123, 133, 134, 136 duties, and responsibilities 25–26 e-WOM 51 Eastern European countries 54 eastern perspectives 11–15 on Ise Jingu (Japan) 27 and western perspectives 27–28 ecocentric approach, to natural heritage 21 economic burden 93 economic changes 155–156 local people’s views 86–88 economic dependency 70 economic development 39 economic growth theory 39 economic impacts 82–83, 82 Edinburgh (Scotland) 125 education levels 70 educational trips 58, 61 elderly people 93 Elkhart County Convention and Visitors’ Bureau 57 Elmina (Ghana) 73 employment local people’s views 89 opportunities 88, 92, 93 endangered species 116 environmental aspect 45 environmental changes OUV primary factors 157 sociocultural changes 71 environmental impacts destination development 116 tourism 114–115 Europe, conservation movement 14 European countries 14 Everglades (Florida) 122, 125, 132–134 experience 50 extrinsic factors 69 fake version 12–13 fees, accommodation 90 festivals 53 financial support 86 and funding 42 flora and fauna 38 food tourism 53 fresh water 117 funding 45, 92 access to 85–86 and financial support 42 Galapagos, discovery of 120 gender 70 geographical and physiographical formations Germany, Dresden Elbe Valley 7, 25, 101, 104, 123, 133, 134, 136 Ghana, Cape Coast and Elmina 73 global brand 56 global heritage global strategy Global Strategy for a Representative, Balanced and Credible World Heritage List 4 globalisation 23 States Parties Gokayama (Japan) 8, 43, 57, 59, 72, 86, 88, 100, 108–109, 122 golf tourism 117 goods 90 government, local 68 Great Wall of China 13 greenhouse gases 116 groups of buildings 6, 25, 137 Guimarães (Portugal) 87, 89, 91, 103, 105, 106, 108, 124 Ha Long Bay (Vietnam) 74, 87, 91, 125 habitat degradation 134 Hallstatt in China 12 Hallstatt-Dachstein Salzkammergut Cultural Landscape (Austria) 12 heritage 5, 14, 23, 29 authenticity 12–13 concepts of 9–11 conservation 24 plan 45 discourse 25 global 4 industrial 54 industry heritage management 20 Operational Guidelines 20 intangible 29 management 20 heritage industry 20 Yellowstone National Park 20 skills, intangible elements 27 164 Index heritage tourism 53 rise of 54 Hiroshima City (Japan) 60, 60 Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Japan) 53 historic centres, concept of 14 Historic Urban Landscapes (HULs) 136–137 history of tourism 69 holistic approach 61 holistic management 57 Horyu-ji Area Buddhist Monuments (Japan) 59, 88 house construction, new, Japan 13 Huangshan (China) 71 human conditions 134 identity 9 local 74 image 60 content 50 destination 53, 54 recognition 37 induced 55 organic 55 site 42, 43 income 89 individualism 11, 14 induced images 55 industrial heritage 54 industries heritage 20 traditional 88 infrastructure built environment 117–119, 123–124 for local communities basic 117–118 and visitors 118–119 transport 38, 118, 123 inscription 149 intangible heritage 27, 29 integrity 10 interactions, people and nature 151 interest in conservation 72 International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) 3, 8, 21, 56, 148, International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) 3, 8, 9, 21, 40, 42, 56, 74, 148 international tourism organisation 57 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 4, 7, 8, 20, 43, 119, 122 internet 50–51 intrinsic factors 69–71 invasion of privacy, nuisance 42 invasive species 119–120 investment 87 Ise Jingu (Japan) 27 Islamic countries, employment opportunities 88 Italy Costiera Amalfitana 55 Venice 91 Verona 90 Japan 11, 12, 58, 59, 73, 86, 89, 90–91, 122, 124 authenticity 151 Buddhist Monuments Horyu-ji Area 59, 88 temples and pilgrimage routes 55, 86 conservation 151 Gokayama 8, 43, 57, 59, 72, 86, 88, 100, 108–109, 122 Hiroshima City 60, 60 Hiroshima Peace Memorial 53 Ise Jingu 27 Kyoto 90 muraokoshi 15 natural WHSs 125 new house construction 13 Osaka 90 shikinen sengu 27 Shirakawa-go 8 Ogimachi 59, 73, 89, 90–91, 108, 109, 122, 124 Tokyo 90 Japanese people, nature 151 jobs, tourism-related 36 Kenya, Lamu Old Town 89 key stakeholders, tourism 35 Kii Mountain Range 28–29, 57, 75, 86, 101, 102–103, 122 Daimon-zaka 28 Kotor (Montenegro), Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of 132 Kyoto (Japan) 90 Lamu Old Town (Kenya) 89 landscapes 134 cultural 4, 134, 135, 136 leisure activities, traditional 52–53 length of residence 70 less-developed countries (LDCs) 14, 36, 56, 118 Lijiang Town (China) 44 List of World Heritage in Danger (LWHD) 2, 3, 22, 101, 102, 106, 109, 122, 136, 148 as contemporary development 131, 132–134, 133, 142 Everglades 125, 122 literature tourism 53 Liverpool – Maritime Mercantile City (UK) 101, 102, 132, 133 living costs, and property values 37 living standards, and quality of living 37 local communities 23, 59, 93, 154–155 basic infrastructure 117–118 change in views 155 conservation activities 159 diversity 69 local people 65 split 45 tourism 66 United Kingdom 75 and visitors, infrastructure 118–119 local culture 42 authenticity of 37 enhancing 37 local goods 90 local government 68 local identity 74 local industries and business, diversification 35 local people local communities 65 views of 68–69, 77, 93, 110, 126 employment 89 Ha Long Bay 87 Mutianyu village 87 natural environment 122–123 tourism 87–88 visitors 37 demand 27 Londoners 74 Macquarie Island 120 management 57, 148 conservation activities 152 destination 61 heritage 20 holistic 57 plan, responsibilities and duties 26 site 149 stewardship 10 tourism 41, 42 managers 30 marketing destination 50–52, 57, 61 organisations, stakeholders 57 tourism 49 mass media 55 Mauritius, Port Louis 71, 90 memory of the world 138–140 Mexico, Cancun 116, 117 michi-bushin programme 29 modern tourism 50 monitoring reactive 22 and reporting 29 Montenegro, Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor 132 Index 165 monuments 6, 59, 88 Mount Wutai 59 movie tourism 53 multinational corporations (MNCs) 36, 85 muraokoshi 15 Mutianyu (China) 73, 87, 89, 91, 123 resident surveys 124 national parks 13, 58, 60 Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor (Montenegro) 132 natural environment 38 Africa 122 and built environment 115 changes in 122 civil conflicts 122 Democratic Republic of the Congo 122 impact of tourism 115, 115–116 local people’s views 122–123 natural features natural heritage 21 categories of ecocentric approach 21 sustainable 21 World Heritage Centre 21 natural sites nature and culture 13 Japanese people 151 nature conservation 45 nature reserves, private 115 nature-focused concepts 140–141 Nepal 116 new technologies 26 nuisance 42 Ogimachi (Japan) 59, 73, 89, 91, 122, 124 gassho-style houses 108, 109 local people’s views 90–91 Oman, Arabian Oryx Sanctuary 101, 109, 134 Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the WH Convention 4, 6, 10, 20, 29 organic images 55 Osaka (Japan) 90 Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) 10, 22, 29, 119, 120, 149, 157 overcrowding 37, 42 pace and scale, tourism development 42 park-and-ride systems 118 parking spaces 118 Partnerships for Conservation Initiative (PACT) 86 people and nature, interactions 151 Periodic Reporting 22 166 Index photography 50 pilgrimage routes see Kii Mountain Range place of residence (to live) 70 attachment to 73 planning and cities 13–14, 151–152 sustainable 26 plans conservation 42 heritage conservation plan 45 poaching 119, 120, 134 pollution 38, 117 population 37 Port Louis (Mauritius) 71, 90 Portugal, Guimarães 87, 89, 91, 103, 105, 106, 108, 124 postmodernism 22 pride in place of residence 73–74 privacy invasion of 42 overcrowding 37 private nature reserves 115 properties 10 values 37 psychological impacts, of World Heritage status 72–76 quality of living 37 Rapa Nui National Park (Chile) reactive monitoring 22 religion, and culture 11–12, 150 reporting and monitoring 29 residence length of 70 pride in place of 73–74 resident surveys 123 responsibility 39 balancing 44 and duties 25–26 responsible tourism 39 rural areas Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range 28–29, 28, 57, 75, 86, 101, 102–103, 122 Saltaire (UK) 8, 73, 87, 122 local people’s views 90–91 tourist signs 75 Scotland, Edinburgh 125 scrap and build culture 27 seaside 53 seasonality 69, 88 selection, criteria for sense of community 37 services 50, 60 business 87 sewage 117 shikinen sengu 27 Shintoism 11 Shirakawa-go (Japan) Ogimachi 59, 73, 89, 90–91, 122, 124 shogyo-mujo 13 sites cultural heritage in danger list see List of World Heritage in Danger (LWHD) image 42, 43 management 149 skiing 53 social dimension 21 social pathology 36 social polarisation 37 societies and communities 11, 150 sociocultural aspect 45 sociocultural changes 71, 110, 156–157 South Korea 71 Spain, Barcelona 91 spas 53 split local communities 45 staged authenticity 43 stakeholders 61 key 35 marketing organisations 57 tourism 35, 115 State of Conservation Information System (SOC) 22 States Parties 3, 6, 30, 122, 123, 132, 135 competition 40 globalisation 3 natural heritage World Heritage Committee Stone Town of Zanzibar 89 strategy, global 4, sub-Saharan Africa 115 Sundarbans, climate change 121 sustainability, triple bottom line (TBL) 35, 36–37, 45 sustainable development 35, 44 sustainable planning 26 sustainable tourism 39, 150 Taiqian (China) 90 taxation 89, 90 technical knowledge 27 temples 55–56 and pilgrimage routes 28, 86, 102 Thailand 86 Three Gorges Dam (China) 121 Tokyo (Japan) 90 top-down approach 24 tourism 6, 15, 24, 26, 152 attitudes towards 69 components of 116 definition 34 development 39–40, 40–41, 42 pace and scale 42 projects 7 tool 35 environmental impacts 114–115 groups 52 guest perspective 43–44 guest side 45 hosting 41 knowledge 70 local attitudes to 68 local communities 66 local people’s views 87–88 management 26, 41, 42 marketing 49, 154 multiplier 85 new and niche types 53 overdependence 87 services 51 stakeholders 35, 115 theory development 153 tourism-related employment opportunities 88 tourism-related jobs 36 tourist attraction, definition of 51 tourist destination 115 site image 43 tourist gaze 50 tourist-related activities 117 tourist signs, Saltaire 75 tourist sites, classification 52 tourist tax 90 tourists and excursionists 72 traditional industries 88 traditional leisure activities 52–53 traffic 117 traffic-related problems 37 transport development 118 infrastructure 38, 118, 123 trekking 116 triple bottom line (TBL) 35, 36–37, 45 Tyntesfield (UK) 118 Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park (Australia) 60 undesirable jobs 88 UNESCO 2, 14, 61, 142, 147 World Heritage Centre uniqueness 55 United Kingdom (UK) Index 167 Bath 10 conservation 13 Liverpool – Maritime Mercantile City 101, 102, 132, 133 local communities 75 Saltaire 8, 73, 75, 87, 90–91, 122 Tyntesfield 118 York 118 United States of America (USA) Everglades 122, 125, 132–134 natural WHSs 125 Yellowstone National Park 20 universalist attitudes 24 University of Massachusetts Amherst Centre for Heritage and Society, Concepts of Heritage UNWTO 39 value 8, 24 Venice (Italy) 91 Verona (Italy) 90 Vietnam, Ha Long Bay 74, 87, 91, 125 visitation, conservation 26 visitors 14 attraction 51, 118 demand 27 infrastructure 38 local people 37 numbers 87 Wales 76 wastewater 117 water fresh 117 resources 38 waterfronts 123 ways of life 37 websites 51, 55, 61 western perspectives 11 and eastern perspectives 27–28 western viewpoints 150 wine tourism 53 WOM (word-of-mouth) 50, 51 women participants 88 workforce, women’s advancement of 89 World Heritage Centre, natural heritage 21 World Heritage Committee 2–3, 86, 147–148, 149 World Heritage Convention Mission of World Heritage Sites 6–7 Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the WH Convention 4, 6, 10, 20, 29 World Heritage in Danger criteria for 133 see also List of World Heritage in Danger (LWHD) 168 Index World Heritage status attachment to the place of residence 73 interest in conservation 72 local identity 74 pride in place of residence 73–74 psychological impacts 72–76 tourists and excursionists 72 World Heritage mission World Wildlife Fund (WWF) 120 Yellowstone National Park (USA) 20 young people 88, 93 Zanzibar, Stone Town of 89 ... change hits one in six world heritage nature sites Available at: https://www newscientist.com/article/mg22730294.100-climate-change-hits-one-in-six -world- heritage- naturesites/ (accessed 21 September... asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/Economy/Japan-s-travel-balance-turns-positive-1st-time-in-55years (accessed 22 August 2017) Nikkei.com (2017) Kyoto-shi Shukuhaku-zei Donyu e - Mimpaku mo Taisho ni: Yushikishai-toshin... Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/nov/13/more-than-a-third-of-natural -world- heritagesites-face-significant-threats (accessed 20 September 2017) 128 Chapter The Guardian (2016)