Ebook Ecotourism (Fourth edition): Part 2

Continued part 1, part 2 of ebook Ecotourism (Fourth edition) provide readers with content about: topics and issues important to ecotourism; socio- cultural and ecological impacts of ecotourism; economic impacts and marketing of ecotourism;... Please refer to the part 2 of ebook for details!

Part III Topics and issues important to ecotourism This final part includes a number of main topics and issues that are prevalent in the ecotourism literature It begins with a discussion of the socio-cultural and ecological impacts of ecotourism It may be argued that any type of tourism, including ecotourism, has impacts It then becomes important to manage these impacts to be as minor as possible The issue of impact is compounded by the fact that ecotourism involves long-haul travel and associated high usage of fossil fuels to satisfy hedonistic ends The more people who travel, the bigger the problem, and this fact alone calls into question whether ecotourism can be truly ethical or responsible Continuing forward from the discussion on local participation and benefits in Part II, Chapter takes a broader scale look at economics and marketing in ecotourism Leakages, multiplier effect and specific examples of how revenue is used in parks and the value of ecotourism as compared to other land uses are central components of this chapter This new edition also includes a section on demarketing as a technique that actively dissuades people from purchasing a product (as in visitation to parks and protected areas), for the purpose of maintaining socio-cultural and ecological integrity Chapter 10 focuses on development, governance and politics in ecotourism As there is often an uneasy relationship that exists between the various stakeholders in tourism, including local people, tourism, government and protected areas, careful management through cooperative endeavours proves beneficial A number of environmental governance models are discussed and these are matched with different case studies from the ecotourism literature These different models on governance emphasise different roles and relationships in attempts to satisfy issues around shared involvement and inclusivity Chapter 11 provides guidance for practitioners (and academics) on how to build effective ecotourism programmes Good definitions, lead to good policies, which in turn lead to good programmes As these programmes are most often the face of ecotourism in the eyes of ecotourists, it is important to get these programmes right It is only when there is consistency amongst the various agents involved in ecotourism – policy-makers, academics, practitioners and tourists – that ecotourism will work both in theory and practice Aspects of planning, implementation and evaluation in programme planning are emphasised in a model that will hopefully help achieve the social, ecological and economic goals of ecotourism Figure P3 The structure of ecotourism Socio-cultural and ecological impacts of ecotourism Tourism research typically centres on topics related to the social, ecological and economic impacts of the tourism industry Social impact studies involve an analysis of how the industry has affected local people and their lifestyles, whereas ecological studies have emphasised how the industry has transformed the physical nature of local and regional landscapes Such studies seem to be in contrast to tourism economic research, which in most cases illustrate the income-generating power of the industry at many scales Given that impact research is quite voluminous, it is not the purpose of the following discussion to provide a complete overview of research in these areas Instead, this chapter focuses most extensively on issues related to ecological impacts, carrying capacity and, less specifically, on social impacts Economics and marketing in ecotourism are the topic of the next chapter Social impacts of tourism One of the most influential frameworks developed to analyse tourism’s impact on local people is based on the work of Doxey (1975), who, in a general context, was able to encapsulate the evolving sentiment that local people express as tourism expands and occupies greater proportions of a local economy over time Doxey wrote that there are essentially four main stages to consider in the assessment of local feelings towards the tourism industry These include: Euphoria Tourists are welcomed, with little control or planning Apathy Tourists are taken for granted, with the relationship between both groups becoming more formal or commercialised Planning is concerned mostly with the marketing of the tourism product Annoyance As saturation in the industry is experienced, local people have misgivings about the place of tourism Planners increase infrastructure rather than limit growth Antagonism Irritations are openly displayed towards tourists and tourism Planning is remedial, yet promotion is increased to offset the deteriorating reputation of the destination There are myriad examples of regions that have been subject to this cycle in tourism (see also Butler 1980 later in this chapter) As a case in point, Bermuda experienced visitor numbers of some ten times its local population in 1980 (600,000 people) in an area approximately 21 mi2 This type of tourist-to-local ratio is indicative of the conditions that have led to social conflict Although visitation has its economic rewards, what the host country gives up to attract tourism dollars cannot be measured in economic 166 • Topics and issues important to ecotourism terms It is no accident that the most vital and creative parts of the Caribbean, for example, have been precisely those that have been most touched by tourism (Chodos 1977: 174) The oft-quoted claim of Evan Hyde, a Black Power leader in Belize in the early 1970s, that ‘Tourism is whorism’ (Erisman 1983: 339) reflects the frequent claims that tourism leads to conflict between locals and hosts Such has been the case in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, where heightened levels of hotel, lodge and airport development from private external ownership have led to a loss of autonomy, sense of place, and declining access to local resources, as well as a climate of racism in the tourism industry based on the divide between the black population and white tourism operators, with the latter refusing to hire the former into top management positions (Mbaiwa, 2003) A notable impact of tourism on traditional values is the demonstration effect (Britton 1977; Hope 1980; Mathieson and Wall 1982), where local patterns of consumption change to imitate those of the tourists, even though local people only get to see a side of tourists that is often not representative of their behaviour displayed at home (e.g spending patterns) Alien commodities are rarely desired prior to their introduction into host communities and, for most residents of destination areas in the developing world, such commodities remain tantalisingly beyond reach (Rivers 1973) The process of commercialisation and commodification may ultimately erode local goodwill and authenticity of products, as identified by Britton (1977): Cultural expressions are bastardized in order to be more comprehensible and therefore saleable to mass tourism As folk art becomes dilute, local interest in it declines Tourists’ preconceptions are satisfied when steel bands obligingly perform Tony Orlando tunes (and every other day the folklore show is narrated in German) (Britton 1977: 272) This is the case in Zanzibar, according to Gössling (2002), who writes that young Zanzibaris clamour to identify with Western lifestyles by drinking beer, wearing sunglasses or adopting similar styles of clothing The tourist lifestyle has thus gained superiority in Zanzibar, leading to a situation where tourists are allowed – even expected – to act inappropriately (e.g topless bathing), and where local people are influenced to change their traditional ways in mirroring tourist behaviours In many cases there is scepticism over the benefits of ecotourism In Shenzha County, Tibet, residents are concerned that ecotourism development will destroy the natural environment of the region as well as disrupt folk customs and culture (Tang et al 2012) Ryan et al (2000) have explored this terrain in concluding that there is a culture of consumerism driving ecotourism culture, and that hedonism is seen to be more important than learning in the ecotourist experience The fragmentation of culture occurs on many levels within destinations, most notably from the standpoint of prostitution; crime; the erosion of language in favour of more international dialects; the erosion of traditions, either forgotten or modified for tourists; changes to local music and other art forms; food, in the form of a more international cuisine; architecture; dress; family relationships (e.g young children earning more than their parents from toting bags at airports); and, in some cases, religion In recognising the potential for social impact in a tourist region, Ryan (1991: 164) has identified a number of key points, all of which may be used as indicators or determinants of impact These are as follows: the number of tourists; the type of tourists; the stage of tourist development; Socio-cultural and ecological impacts • 167 the differential in economic development between tourist-generating and touristreceiving zones; the difference in cultural norms between tourist-generating and tourist-receiving zones; the physical size of the area, which affects the densities of the tourist population; the extent to which tourism is serviced by an immigrant worker population; the degree to which incoming tourists purchase properties; the degree to which local people retain ownership of properties and tourist facilities; 10 the attitudes of governmental bodies; 11 the beliefs of host communities, and the strengths of those beliefs; 12 the degree of exposure to other forces of technological, social and economic change; 13 the policies adopted with respect to tourist dispersal; 14 the marketing of the tourist destination and the images that are created of that destination; 15 the homogeneity of the host society; 16 the accessibility to the tourist destination; and 17 the original strength of artistic and folkloric practices, and the nature of those traditions Central in the attempts to secure cultural resiliency is the recognition that both hosts and guests need to be sensitive to one another’s way of life Stronza (2001) observes that we need to understand the dynamics behind both tourists and residents, and their crosscultural interactions, in appreciating the nature of tourism While most research on the topic of socio-cultural impacts usually examines the impacts that tourists have on local residents, Stronza examined a number of studies where residents were found to take advantage of tourists In one case, locals took pleasure in toying with tourists who were characterised as, ‘relatively ignorant of local conditions, and thus often appear incompetent, ridiculous, gullible, and eminently exploitable’ (Howell 1994: 152, cited in Stronza 2001: 273) This work resonates with research by Fennell (2006) on the theory of reciprocal altruism, and the cost–benefit relationships that fail to take place between residents and guests (refer back to Chapter 7) This dynamic has been further touched upon by Carrier and MacLeod (2005), who discuss the socio-cultural context of ecotourism from the perspective of an ‘ecotourist bubble’, not unlike Cohen’s (1972) concept of the environmental bubble The former is distinguishable based on the belief that the ecotourist’s interaction with the destination – the purchase of ecotourism as a commodity – induces a type of ignorance that clouds the social relations that bring it into existence The authors recount a discussion with an environmentalist who said that she was careful not to disturb any of the fragile plant life in her wanderings about Antarctica The tourist was blind, however, to the consequences of the infrastructure and operations that got her to Antarctica and back to the northern hemisphere (discussed further below) It is indeed an unfortunate reality that the least emphasised pillar in sustainable tourism research is the socio-cultural component (Robinson, 1999), which could be so important in framing our perspective on economics and environment The socio-cultural component has fallen through the cracks because of a propensity to study the motives and behaviours of tourists only and to neglect the more passive recipients of the tourism industry (Chambers 1999, cited in Stronza, 2001) Sustainability in peripheral locations is also undermined because it is often wielded as an ideological tool which empowers those who support it, usually external agents, to take control over resources based on their own criteria of sustainability (Cohen 2002) Sustainability, argues Thaman (2002), must be rooted within the socio-cultural value set of a distinct group Inserting external groups with foreign models and paradigms into a destination only serves to reinforce the differing goals and values that both parties live by 168 • Topics and issues important to ecotourism It is also an unfortunate reality that sustainability comes only as a result of physical conditions that limit exploitation This seems to be the case with the island of Niue (population: approximately 1900 in 1998) because of its poor quality beaches, remote location and high cost to get there (See Orams 2002 for a discussion of the constraints to the whale watching industry in Tonga, tied strongly to isolation.) With only 1,729 visitors to Niue in 1998, competition from other islands in the region has prevented this nation from reaping larger-scale benefits from tourism (de Haas 2002) This prompted de Haas to conclude that if the tourism carrying capacity of the island was to be met or exceeded, a loss of authenticity, language, customs and dress would soon follow because of the emerging reliance on tourism and the inability to be resilient under conditions of change As ecotourism continues to diversify and exploit relatively untouched regions and cultures, there is the danger that a cycle of events similar to that identified by Doxey will occur The lessons from the Caribbean model of tourism development, for example, are that the industry must tread lightly in securing an equitable relationship between how the industry is planned and developed and the needs of local people Britton (1977) recognised the importance of small-scale, local architecture, tourism zoning, gradual growth, reliance on locally produced goods, joint ventures and a diversification in the market, in releasing the Caribbean from metropolitan domination Armed with this knowledge, and experience, it is indeed encouraging to see that some have made a concerted effort to reclaim their cultural past in recognising how transformative the tourism industry can be Hospers (2003), for example, writes that the intentional move away from industrialisation and mass tourism in Sardinia in favour of small-scale bottom-up ecotourism and cultural tourism has allowed Sardinians to reclaim their agricultural and cultural past Having its identity removed in the post-World War II era through top-down industrialisation, tourism has infused a new energy and regional flair to Sardinia which has stimulated many innovative new products to support tourism Ecological impacts Concern over the ecological effects of tourism mounted during the 1960s and 1970s (Pearce 1985), through the realisation that the industry had the capability of either moderately altering or completely transforming destination regions in adverse ways The National Geographic Magazine as far back as the early 1960s (Cerruti 1964) was asking whether Acapulco had been spoiled by overdevelopment, while Naylon (1967) discussed the need to alleviate some of the stress caused by a high concentration of tourism in the Balearic Islands and the Costa Brava in Spain Pollock wrote that although tourism had begun to play an important role in the economy of Tanzania, ‘the vital necessity for game conservation in the interests of ecology, tourism, game farming and ranching, and for moral, aesthetic, philosophical and other reasons has been recognized increasingly both at national and international levels’ (Pollock 1971: 147) Others have commented on the physical impacts of tourism in city and regional environments, including Harrington (1971), who observed that the unregulated development of hotels in London threatened the quality of life in the city, and Jones (1972), who makes reference to tourism development as a classic case of the battle that exists between conservation and preservation on the island of Gozo Crittendon (1975) illustrates that while tourism has transformed much of the world’s natural beauty into gold, the industry may have planted the seeds of its own destruction Sensitivity to environmental issues in tourism studies gained a tremendous boost in the mid-1970s from the efforts of Budowski (1976), Krippendorf (1977) and Cohen (1978) Budowski identified three different ‘states’ in tourism’s relationship with environmental Socio-cultural and ecological impacts • 169 conservation: conflict, coexistence and symbiosis He felt that tourism’s expansion resulted in an unavoidable effect on the resources upon which it relied, and therefore felt that the relationship at the time was one of coexistence moving towards conflict Krippendorf was one of the first to write on the importance of planning, and the dispersion of tourists and tourism developments, as a means by which to minimise impacts; while Cohen reviewed the work to date (academic and non-academic) on tourism and the environment He speculated on the apparent ‘mood of the day’ by insisting that there was indeed a distinct difference between development for purposes of improvement and aesthetic appeal versus the vulgar, undesirable and irreparable damage created by modern tourism More research on the ecological impacts of tourism emerged in the early 1980s from Krippendorf (1982), who, like Budowski, recognised that the resource base acted as the raw material of tourism, which through improper use and overuse loses its value Krippendorf cited ski-slopes, holiday villages, camping and caravan sites, and airfields as examples of developments that when fully functional seem to subsume the environment forever for their own uses Travis (1982) suggested in his review of literature that while most studies on tourism concentrated on the economic benefits of tourism, there was also a tremendous range of topics related to its negative impact, including pollution, crowding and congestion, damage/destruction of heritage resources, land use loss, ecosystem effects, loss of flora and fauna and increased urbanisation Concurrently, Coppock (1982) identified similar areas where tourism had an adverse impact on nature conservation in the UK These were identified as loss of habitat, damage to soil and vegetation, fire, pollution, and disturbance of flora and fauna In the 1980s, books started to emerge that dealt with the impacts of tourism, including Mathieson and Wall’s (1982) work on economic, social and ecological impacts Tourism research on ecological impacts further intensified throughout the 1980s on the basis of a wealth of information surfacing on the relationship between tourism and conservation, and the need to address how best to overcome tourism’s negative impacts In a special edition on tourism in the International Journal of Environmental Studies, Romeril (1985) wrote that concern for the environmental impacts of tourism has come on the wings of a broader global concern over the conservation of natural resources generated by the United Nations Human Environment Conference of 1972, the World Conservation Strategy of 1980, the Report of the Brandt Commission (1980) and the Manila Declaration on World Tourism in 1980, which stated that: The use of tourism resources could not be left uncontrolled without running the risk of their deterioration, or even destruction The satisfaction of tourism requirements must not be prejudicial to the social and economic interests of the population in tourist areas, to the environment and above all to natural resources which are the fundamental attractions of tourism and historical and cultural sites All tourism resources are part of the heritage of mankind (cited in Romeril 1985: 216) In the same edition, Pearce (1985) reproduced a framework for the study of environmental stress that was established by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1981, and included stressor activities, the pressure resulting from the activity, the primary environmental response and the secondary human response to stress Four main examples were identified in this framework related to permanent environmental restructuring, generation of waste, tourist activities and effects on population dynamics, as shown in Table 8.1 The importance of understanding the constituents driving excessive levels of pressure in destinations is illustrated more recently in the case 170 • Topics and issues important to ecotourism of the touristification (the number of tourists New Zealand can accommodate over a measurable time frame) of Queenstown, New Zealand (Page and Thorn 2002) Overcrowding and overdevelopment in Queenstown are placing a great deal of pressure on the local authority, which has prompted McLaughlin (1995: 90, cited in Page and Thorn 2002: 235) to suggest that: Queenstown is in danger of becoming so successful as a tourist resort that it risks losing itself as a town and irreparably damaging the landscape which not only draws its international clients it’s not change per se which frightens some residents, but the pace and magnitude of change and the location of development (See also Puppim de Oliveira 2003 for a table illustrating many of tourism’s shocks on the environment; and OK 2006 for a description of 28 impact variables used to assess the pressure that ecotourism activities have on forests.) One of the most complete overviews of the history of ecological concern in tourism was written by Shackleford (1985) His review of tourism and the environment suggests that the International Union of Official Travel Organisations, or IUOTO (the precursor to the WTO, now the UNWTO), had been working with the environment in mind since the early 1950s, through the efforts of the Commission for Travel Development From 1954 onwards the protection of heritage was an agenda item for this organisation Subsequent work by the IUOTO led to the recommendation by its Fifteenth General Assembly that world governments implement the following 1960 resolution: The General Assembly, considering that nature in its most noble and unchanging aspects constitutes and will continue increasingly in the future to constitute one of the essential elements of the national or world tourist heritage Believes that the time has come for it to deal with the problems raised by the dangers threatening certain aspects of nature Decides consequently to recommend to all IUOTO Member Countries to exercise increased vigilance regarding the attacks made on their natural tourist resources (Shackleford 1985: 260) Other examples of environmental impact research in tourism in the 1980s include work by Farrell and McLellan (1987) and Inskeep (1987), in a special edition of the Annals of Tourism Research Their research suggests that planning and policy are critical components of a more ecologically based tourism development strategy for the future (more on policy in Chapter 10) For example, Inskeep (1987) writes that determining the carrying capacity of tourist sites is an important factor in the planning and design of appropriate tourist facilities, a concept around which Mlinarić (1985) built a discussion on tourism and the Mediterranean (more on carrying capacity below) Up to and including the 1980s, few models had attempted to study tourism impacts from an ecological standpoint This notion is reinforced by Getz (1986) who identified three ecologically based frameworks in an analysis of over 40 tourism models These included a comprehensive model by Wall and Wright (1977), the OECD model mentioned above, and a unique model by Murphy (1983), who made an analogy between the tourism industry (locals, the industry and tourists) and predators and prey interacting within an ecosystem Although Getz’s work was completed some years ago, Dowling (1993) reports that little had changed up to the 1990s with respect to the creation or implementation of tourism development models from the environmental disciplines Fennell and Butler (2003) point to the fact that because it is largely social scientists making inferences on ecological matters, there is much uncertainty with respect to the ecological impacts of tourism They also point to the fact that there is little natural science research emerging Table 8.1 A framework for the study of tourism and environmental stress Stressor activities Stress Permanent environmental restructuring (a) Major construction Restructuring activity of local environments • urban expansion • transport network • expansion of built • tourist facilities environments •marinas, ski-lifts, sea walls • land taken out of primary production Primary response: environmental Secondary response: (reaction) human Change in habitat Change in population of biological species Change in health and welfare of man Change in visual quality Individual – impact on aesthetic values Collective measures • expenditure on environmental improvements • expenditure on management of conservation • designation of wildlife conservation and national parks • controls on access to recreational lands (b) Change in land use • Expansion of recreational lands Generation of waste residuals • urbanisation • transportation Pollution loadings • emissions • effluent discharges • solid waste disposal • noise (traffic, aircraft) Change in quality of environmental media • air • water • soil Health of biological organisms Health of humans Tourist activities • skiing • walking • hunting • trail bike riding • collecting Trampling of vegetation and soils Disturbance and destruction of species Change in habitat Change in population of biological species Effect on population dynamics Population growth Population density (seasonal) Source: Pearce (1985) Individual defensive measures local residents • air conditioning • recycling of waste materials • protests and attitude change towards tourists • change of attitude towards the environment • decline in tourist revenues Collective defensive measures • expenditure on pollution abandonment by tourist related industries • clean-up of rivers, beaches Collective defensive measures • expenditure on management of conservation • designation of wildlife • Congestion Demand for natural resources • land and water • energy conservation and national parks controls on access to recreational lands Individual • Attitudes to overcrowding and the environment Collective • Growth in support services, e.g water supply, electricity 172 • Topics and issues important to ecotourism from the tourism journals to aid in the continuing struggle to come to grips with the tourism impact dilemma, with the result being that impacts are often anticipated but not controlled (see also McKercher 1993b) An excellent addition to the literature on the environmental impacts from tourism comes from Newsome et al (2002), who identify a whole range of different types of impacts, their sources and regions in which these take place The authors note that sources of impacts cited in the literature include trampling (vegetation, microbes, soils) access roads and trails, built facilities and camp grounds (camp sites and firewood) and water edges (river banks, lakes and reservoirs, coastal areas and coral reefs) The book recognises the importance of looking at impacts from a bio-geographical perspective, by identifying specific ecoregions, including mountains, caves, arctic-alpine environments, tropical realms and arid environments Other works have identified a range of recreational activities and their associated positive and negative impacts along the following lines: habitat change/loss, species change/loss, aesthetics, physical pollution, soil change/ damage, noise pollution, conflicts, energy/water usage, local community and revenue versus costs (see Tribe et al 2000) Weaver and Lawton (2007) argue that a large percentage of studies on the ecological impacts of ecotourism focus on the effects that the ecotourism industry has on wildlife And in these studies, distance between ecotourists and wildlife is the critical variable affecting increased levels of stress on fauna The following few examples serve to illustrate the nature of these impacts A persistent problem in ecotourism is justifying it as a more ecologically sound practice despite the fact that it, like mass tourism, often involves long-haul travel and associated high usage of fossil fuels to satisfy hedonistic ends In this regard, Gössling (2000) argues that far from being the low-impact and non-consumptive development option that it is often advertised as, tourism-related use of fossil fuels has an overall significant and detrimental impact This is especially true of lesser developed countries (LDCs) which rely on long-haul travel from the industrialised nations Gössling says for a two-week package tour in a LDC, the country itself is responsible for 24 per cent of fossil fuel use (ground transportation, cooking, cleaning, cooling, heating, and so on), with the rest (76 per cent ) coming from air travel – which contributes almost 90 per cent of the trip’s overall contribution to global warming (in consideration of nitrogen oxides) In related research, Lynes and Dredge (2006) have identified four key environmental issues, including air emissions, noise emissions, congestion and waste, that stigmatise the airline sector This stigmatism has motivated airline 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see also ACE tourism (adventure, culture, ecotourism) AEE (Association for Experiential Education) 154 Aesculapia principles 124–5 affective domain 120 Africa: ecotourists 27; gorilla tourism 104–5; hunting 45–6; national parks 19, 101–2, 104, 109, 193, 198, 212, 223, 237–8; private reserves 106, 108; wildlife tourism 11 African Wildlife Foundation 104 Agenda 21 141 agrochemicals 61, 88 aid, international 225, 231–2 air adventure products 54 air travel 172, 272 Aland, Finland 73 Alaska, USA 46, 193 Alberta, Canada 206–7 alternative tourism see AT altruism, reciprocal 133–4, 167, 234 Amazon 19, 79, 146, 203 ambassadorship 146 Amboseli National Park, Kenya, Africa 198, 212, 237–8 America Outdoors 115 American Affiliated Pacific Islands 81, 242–3 American Camping Association 154 American Mountain Guides Association 154 American Museum of Natural History 11 Amigos de Sian Ka’an 97 angling 29, 46–7 see also fishing animal ethics 137–8, 139, 160–1 animal harassment 63–4, 150, 151, 152–3, 181 animals, dangerous 263–4 Annals of Tourism Research 170 Annapurna Conservation Area Project, Nepal 173 annoyance 165 antagonism 165 Antarctica 19, 167; ecotourism ethics case study 150, 151–3 anthropocentrism 140, 140 apartheid, South Africa 222 apathy 165 approach distance 181 aquaria 37 archaeological sites 115–16 Arctic region, Canada 81–2 Asia, ACE tourism 58 assets 259, 259–60, 260 Association for Experiential Education (AEE) 154 AT (alternative tourism) 7–8, 8, 9, 72, 72–3 attached residents 75 Auckland, New Zealand 61 Australia 50, 52, 80; dingoes 160; dolphins 174; ecotour guides 112–13, 113; ecotourists 25, 27; Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) 19, 116, 120–1; market segmentation 213; market-based solutions 204–5; marketing 206, 208–9; National Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) 156–7, 157, 158; national parks 27, 31, 116–18, 217–18, 235–6; NBT (nature-based tourism) 41, 173; Ord River Irrigation Area 44; private reserves 108; resorts 123–34; tourism policy 14–15, 243, 245, 246; whale sharks 202 Australian National Ecotourism Strategy 14–15, 243, 245, 246 326 • Index Australian Tourism Commission 82 Austria 10, 70 authenticity 251–2 back regions 22 Bahamas 192 Bahia, Brazil 103, 114 Baja Mexico 82 bald eagles 180–1 Balearic Islands 168 Bali, Indonesia 241; Bali Sustainable Development Project 65 Banff National Park, Canada 89, 90 Barna Mia, Australia 50 Barra de Santiago, El Salvador 100, 231, 236 bats 100 Belize 186, 193, 203, 212 beluga whales 229 benefits see local participation/benefits benefits segmentation 212 bequest values 196, 197 Bermuda 165, 192 billfishing 46 biocentrism 140, 140 biodiversity conservation issues and challenges 97–8, 98, 99, 100–5, 103 biophilia 18 biosphere reserve system 95, 96, 97 Bird Directive (EU) 97 birdwatching 25, 29, 30, 53, 194, 196; and animal harassment 63–4; Last Mountain Lake National Wildlife Area 92; Texas 41–2; USA 41–2, 181; value of 198–9 Blue Mountains National Park, Australia 217 Bohol, Philippines 102 Bolivia 236 Botswana 45–6, 166, 238 branding 208–9 Brandt Commission report, 1980 169 Brazil 103, 114, 220, 237 Brazilian Sea Turtle Conservation Programme, Bahia, Brazil 114 Britain: ecological impacts of tourism 169; national parks 93, 95; parks 88; regulation 227 British Birdwatching Fair 194 British Columbia, Canada 197, 239; marketing research 206–7; Ministry of Development, Industry and Trade 147 British India 85 Brundtland Report, 1987 247 buffalo 86 buffer zones (biosphere reserve system) 95 burrunan dolphins 174 Business Charter on Sustainable Development, International Chamber of Commerce 141 business ethics 135, 143 see also ethics Butler sequence 181–2, 182, 185, 185 Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda 104 CABI (Captania de Alto y Bajo) 236 California, USA 247 Cambodia 146 campsites, environmental impact of 175, 175, 176 Canada 271; adventure tourism 53–4; Arctic region 81–2; biosphere reserves 97; Churchill 19, 24–5, 30; definition of ecotourism 16, 239; ecolodges 130; ecotourists 24–5, 26, 27, 29; ecotours 10; First Nations people 79; frontier mentality 86; Globe ’90 conference 64, 65; Green Tourism Association, Toronto 61–2; hunting 41, 45; marketing 206–7, 208; national multiplier 192; national parks 29, 63–4, 89–91, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 195; natural resources 69; NBT 41; parks 88–9; porbeagle sharks 98, 98, 99; privately owned forests 205; regional variations 209; regulation of whale watching 228, 229; tourism policy 246; Yukon wilderness tourism 43–4, 51 Canada Tourism Attitude and Motivation Study (CTAMS) 27 Canadian Environmental Advisory Council (CEAC) 91 Canadian Forestry Service 10 Canadian Nature Survey 41 Canadian Pacific Hotels and Resorts 272 Canadian Parks Act 89 Canadian Tourism Commission (CTC) 51, 53–4 Canadian Wildlife Service 97 Canary Islands 228 Cancún, Mexico 7, 189 canoeing 53, 176, 177 Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 210 capitalism 84 Captania de Alto y Bajo (CABI) 236 Caribbean 166, 168; cruise line ecotourism 60; ecolodges 130; impact of tourism on 222; leakage 193 carrying capacity 172, 174–7, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179–81 Carson, Rachel 88 cassowaries 208, 209 casual nature tourists 24 catch-and-release fishing 46, 47, 97 CBC (community-based conservation) 101, 102 CBNRM (community-based natural resource management) 101, 226 CBT associations 215 CCD (Corporation for Conservation Development) 184 CEAC (Canadian Environmental Advisory Council) 91 cemeteries 61 Index • 327 Central Park, New York, USA 61 Centre for Future Studies (CFS) 189–90 Century City, South Africa 61 certification 151, 154–9, 157 Chiang Mai, Thailand 131 Chiapas, Mexico 189 Chicago, USA, International Outdoor Adventure Show 62 children, mini-guide programmes 114 Chile 186 China 227 Christianity 84, 85 Chumba Island Coral Park, Zanzibar 203 Churchill, Canada 19, 24–5, 30 CI (Conservation International) 225, 231, 232–3 cities, urban ecotourism 60–2 civil society 230–3 civilisation 63–4 climate 40 climbing 53, 56 CM (collaborative management) 101, 237–8 CO2 emission of tourists 172 Cobá, Mexico 189 codes of ethics 66, 147–51, 148, 150; whale sharks 202 Coed Y Brenin, Britain 172 cognitive attractions cognitive domain 120 collaborative management (CM) 101, 237–8 commercialisation 166 Commission for Travel Development 170 commodification 166 commons issues in protected areas 102, 103 Commonwealth Department of Tourism, Australia 52 community conservation model 101 community development: and hunting 45–6; and tourism 73–8 community-based conservation (CBC) 101, 102 community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) 101, 226 concession fees 194 Congo, Democratic Republic of, gorilla tourism 104–5 conservation 37, 84, 108; biodiversity conservation issues and challenges 97–8, 98, 99, 100–5, 103; and ecosystem management 91–3, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97; and efficient use of resources 86–7; and exploitation of natural resources 84–5; and harmony 86; parks and protected areas 88–91, 90; private reserves 106, 107, 108; roots of 85–6; and spirituality 87–8; and tourism 10 see also Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) conservation hunting 45 Conservation International (CI) 225, 231, 232–3 Consulting and Audit Canada 66, 66 consumption 40, 128; consumptive/ non-consumptive debate 45–7, 49; and the demonstration effect 166; ethical 140–1 contingent valuation method 197 contractual national parks 108 cooperation 230, 234–8 coral reefs 78–9 core areas (biosphere reserve system) 95 Corporation for Conservation Development (CCD) 184 corporations, environmental threat of 86 Costa Brava, Spain 168 Costa Rica 200, 224, 238; animal ethics 137–8, 139; Certification for Sustainable Tourism 151; ecolodges 126, 129; ecotourism 25, 26, 58–9; growth in tourism 60; national parks 19, 65, 92, 106, 186, 194; value of ecotourism 196–7; volunteer tourism 131 Country (Countryside) Code 148, 148 Countryside Commission 93, 95 Crocodylus Rainforest Village 120 cruise line tourism 60, 80, 193 CTAMS (Canada Tourism Attitude and Motivation Study) 27 cultural tourism 17–18, 51–3, 53, 207 see also ACE tourism (adventure, culture, ecotourism) culture, fragmentation of 166 Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve, Ecuadorian Amazon 203 Cwmcarn, Britain 172 dark green ecotourists 131 dark tourism 33 Darwin, Charles 183 Debt-for-Nature Swap 232 dedicated nature tourists 23 Deep Ecology 88 deep ecotourism 12 deer ticks 264 deforestation 85–6 Delphi technique 188 demarketing 216–18, 217 demographic segmentation 212 demonstration effect 166 Denmark 220 deontology 136, 142, 144, 144, 149 dependent development 221 design of programmes 261–5, 262, 265 destinations 19–20 developed resources 39 development 163; indicators of 63; politics of 224–6; theory 219–20; and tourism policy 247 see also Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) 328 • Index development agencies 232–3 dingoes, Australia 160 direct income 192 discrimination, environmental 147 displacement 179 distance, from wildlife 152–4, 181; and whale sharks 202 distribution (place, 4Ps) 217, 218 divers: fees 198; and whale sharks 202 do-it-yourself ecotourists 23 dogs, sled 160 Doi Inthanon National Park, Thailand 27, 101, 238 dolphins 174 Dominica 192 Don River restoration project, Toronto, Canada 61 donations 194 donor countries 225 dwarf minke whales 173–4 eagles 180–1 Earth Sanctuaries Limited (ESL) 204–5 EBT (environmentally based tourism) planning framework 186–7, 187 Eco-Feminist Connection 88 EcoGuide Certification Programme 112–13, 113 ecolabelling 159 see also accreditation; certification ecolodges 79, 110, 124–30, 125, 127, 129, 224; Malaysia 268, 268–9; online marketing 216 ecological footprint of ecotourists 47, 49, 59–60 ecological impacts of ecotourism 163, 168–70, 171, 172–4, 189–90; assessment of 188–9; Butler sequence 181–2, 182, 185, 185; carrying capacity 172, 174–7, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179–81; Galapagos Islands case study 183–4; preformed planning and management frameworks 185–7, 187 Ecological Social Paradigm (ESP) scale 31 ecology 64 economic development see development economic impacts of ecotourism 191; flow of local money 191–3, 192; land values 196–9, 197; market-based solutions 204–5; revenue and parks 193–6, 195; theoretical and practical realities 199–204 economic values 196–7, 197 ecoresorts 124, 130 see also ecolodges ECOS (Ecotourism Opportunity Spectrum) 186 ecosystem management 91–3, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97 ecosystem services 98, 100 ecotour guides see tour guides ecotourism: accreditation and certification 155–9, 157; Antarctica 151–3; barriers to 215, 314; core criteria of 37–8 (see also ethics; learning; nature-based dimension of ecotourism; sustainability); criticisms of 272–3; definitions 11–19, 239; destinations 19–20; economic impacts of 191–205; and ethics 18–19; and governance 224–6; growth rates 19; indicators 17; and less developed countries 222–3; market segments 30–5, 33, 34, 206–7; as mass tourism 58–60; measuring success in 270–1; priorities for 273–4; relationship with nature tourism 12–13; roots of 9–11 see also ACE tourism (adventure, culture, ecotourism); hard ecotourism; soft ecotourism Ecotourism Association of Australia 112, 158 ecotourism lite 14, 15 Ecotourism Opportunity Spectrum (ECOS) 186 ecotourism policy 241–3, 244–5, 246–7 ecotourism programmes see programme planning Ecotourism Society of Saskatchewan 16 Ecotourism Society, The 14, 52, 125 see also International Ecotourism Society Ecotourism/Heritage Tourism Advisory Committee 146 ecotourist bubble 167 ecotourists 21, 25, 26, 35; compliance with codes of practice 149–51; ecolodge visitors 129–30; ecological footprint of 47, 49, 59–60; market segmentation 30–5, 33, 34, 206–7, 211, 211–13; and natural history 1–2; needs assessments 256–7, 257, 258; psychographic research 25, 26, 27, 28; satisfaction of 176–7, 179, 250–3, 251, 252, 252, 253; and specialisation 29–30, 30; typology 23–5; volunteers 131 see also learning ecotourists on tours 23 Ecuador 19, 24, 183, 203 see also Galapagos Islands education see environmental education; learning EIAs (environmental impact assessments) 188 El Avila National Park, Caracas, Venezuela 61 El Salvador 100, 231, 236 Elephant Nature Park (ENP), Chiang Mai, Thailand 131 elephants, value of 198 Emerson, Ralph Waldo 8788 energy strategies, ecolodges 130 England: Country (Countryside) Code 148, 148 see also Britain English Tourist Board 95 Environment Canada 271 environmental discrimination 147 environmental education 18, 34 see also interpretation; learning environmental equity 146–7, 147 environmental governance 226–7; civil society 230–3; contextual control and self-regulation 233–4; cooperative management 234–8; market regulation 228; regulatory control 227–8, 229 Index • 329 environmental impact assessments (EIAs) 188 environmental justice 34, 146–7, 147 environmental problems, market-based solutions to 204–5 environmental racism 147 environmentalism 76, 88, 136 environmentally based tourism (EBT) planning framework 186–7, 187 equity issues 146–7 ESL (Earth Sanctuaries Limited) 204–5 ESP (Ecological Social Paradigm) scale 31 ethical consumption 140–1 ethics 133, 135–6, 136, 161–2; accreditation and certification 154–9, 157; animal ethics 160–1; Antarctica case study 151–3; and biodiversity conservation 102; codes of ethics 147–51, 148, 150, 202; and ecotourism 18–19, 34, 37–8; and human nature 133–5; and tourism 137–8, 138, 139, 140, 140–2, 143, 144, 144–7, 145, 147 euphoria 165 Europe: national parks 67–9; tourism policy 241 European Union, Natura 2000 programme 97, 98 euthanasia 160 evaluation, of programmes 265–9, 267, 268 existence values 196, 197 existentialism 136, 142, 144, 144 Exmoor National Park, Britain 93 externalities 199 extractive industries 69 fauna 40 Federation of Nature and National Parks of Europe 67–9 fees see revenue female ecotourism 25, 71, 122; Canada 41 Finland 73, 159, 192, 198 First Nations people 79 first-round income 192 fish, human interactions with 46–7, 48 fishing 47, 48; Canada 16, 41; and conservation 97–8, 98, 99; and coral reefs 78–9; and ecotourism 46–7; and ethics 160, 161 see also angling Florida, USA 151, 237, 247 flow, state of 54 flushing distance 181 fly-fishing 29 focal animals 118, 119 food safety 263 Forest of Dadia, Greece 97 forests, privately owned 205 formative evaluation 267 fortress mentality 100, 101, 225 fossil fuels 172, 272 Fraser Island, Australia 160 free entry 196 free-choice learning 121 front regions 22 Galapagos Islands 10, 19, 121–2, 182–4 Gambia, and cooperation 230–1 GBRMP (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park), Australia 19, 116, 120–1, 189–90 GBRWHA (Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area), Australia 173–4 gender: and ecotourism 24–5, 122; and equity issues 146 genuine ecotourism 14, 15 geographic location 40 geographic segmentation 212 geography 136 Germany, nature tour operators 111 Gili Indah, Indonesia 78–9 Glacier National Park 180–1 Globe ’90 conference, Canada 64, 65 goals 256 golf courses 61 gorilla tourism, Africa 104–5 governance 163, 224–6 see also environmental governance government enforcement/administration 200 Gozo 168 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP), Australia 19, 116, 120–1, 189–90 Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA), Australia 173–4 Great Texas Coastal Birding Trail 41–2 Greece 97 Green Globe 21 158 green movement 88 Green Tourism Association, Toronto, Canada 61–2 Green Villages, Austria 70 Greenpeace 88 greenwashing 14, 15 Grey seals 150 Greylock Glen ecotourism resort, Massachusetts, USA 126–7 growth: of ecotourism 19; of tourism 60 guides 112–14, 113; accreditation and certification 154; Galapagos Islands 183; and professionalism 255 Habitat Directive (EU) 97 Haliburton Sustainable Forest, Ontario, Canada 205 hard ecotourism 12, 12, 27, 29, 32–3, 33, 47, 49, 58, 128, 207 hard-core nature tourists 23 Hawaii 123, 137, 208, 209–10, 242 health and safety 263–5, 265 Heart of Borneo national park 92–3 330 • Index Hermaness National Nature Reserve, Unst, Shetland hiking 53 Hilton, Kenya 128 Honduras 193 Hong Kong 216 hospitality management 141 hotel chains 271–2 Howling Dog Tours 160 Humber River, Toronto, Canada 61 hunting 46, 47; Africa 45–6; Arctic region, Canada 81–2; Canada 41, 45; and ethics 160, 161 Hyde, Evan 166 IAATO (International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators) 152 ICDPs (integrated conservation and development projects) 101, 201, 203, 231 ideographic attractions IGCP (International Gorilla Conservation Programme) 1045 Iguaỗu Falls 19 IIQUEST (International Institute for Quality and Ethics in Service and Tourism) 141 illegal logging 77 implementation, of programmes 265–6, 266 import substitution 193 see also leakages impulse market segment 206 income 192–3 India 149–50, 203–4 Indians, Canada 79 indigenous cultural-ecological tourism 81 indigenous people: and Aboriginal ecotourism 78–83, 80; and Aboriginal knowledge 122–3; and biodiversity conservation 100–3; and conservation 92 indigenous tourism 81 Indonesia 78–9; national parks 92, 194; tourism policy 241; volunteer tourism 131 Industry Canada 209 information and education programmes 180 see also learning information technologies, and marketing 216–17 Initiative Funds-El Salvador 231 innovation 241, 242 institutions 226, 226 Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) 101, 201, 203, 231 intermediaries 214, 215 international aid 225, 231–2 International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) 152 International Chamber of Commerce, Business Charted on Sustainable Development 141 International Ecotourism Society 14, 15, 19, 125, 131 see also Ecotourism Society International Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) 205 International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP) 104–5 International Institute for Quality and Ethics in Service and Tourism (IIQUEST) 141 International Journal of Environmental Studies 169 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 225 International Outdoor Adventure Show, Chicago, USA 62 International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) 95, 108 International Union of Official Travel Organisations (IUOTO) 170 International Year of Ecotourism, 2002 15, 275, 277 Internet, and marketing 216 interpretation 115–18, 117; information and education programmes 180 interpretive layering 120–1 Inuit people 45, 79, 81–2 inventories 259, 259–60, 260 island environments, impact of tourism on 222 IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) 95, 108 IUOTO (International Union of Official Travel Organisations) 170 jaguars 137, 139 Japan, national parks 233 just tourism 141–2 Kadaku National Park, Australia 235–6 Kampung Kuantan Firefly Park, Malaysia 268 Kanha tiger reserve, India 203–4 Kathmandu, Nepal 102–3 kayaking 44, 53, 54 Kazdagi National Park, Turkey 260, 260 Kenya, national parks 198, 212, 237–8 killer whales 61 Komodo National Park, Indonesia 194 Kruger National Park, South Africa 19, 193 Kuna Indians, Panama 80–1 Kyrgistan 232–3 La Amistad international park 92 La Paz Bay, Mexico 43 LAC (Limits of Acceptable Change) 91, 186 laissez-faire philosophy 220 Lamington National Park, Australia 27, 29 land adventure products 53 land, value of 196–9, 197 landforms 40 Lapa Rios Resort, Costa Rica 126 Index • 331 Last Mountain Lake National Wildlife Area, Saskatchewan, Canada 92 Latin America, ecolodges 130 leakages 192, 192–3, 221 see also import substitution learning 18, 33–4, 37, 110, 132; and Aboriginal knowledge 122–3; drop-off in 121–2; and ecolodges 124–30, 125, 127, 129; information and education programmes 180; interpretation 115–18, 117; signs and viewing platforms 118–19; tour operators and guides 110–15, 113; types of 119–21; and volunteer ecotourism 131 see also environmental education Leslie Street Spit, Toronto, Canada 61 less developed countries: and development theory 219–20; and tourism 220–3, 240 life cycles of tourist destinations 181–2, 185, 185 Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) 91, 186 Lindblad, Lars-Eric 151, 152 lions, value of 198 local money 191–3, 192 local participation/benefits 37, 63, 73–8, 166; and Aboriginal ecotourism 78–83, 80; and biodiversity conservation 100–3, 203–4; and guiding 114 see also stakeholders local-to-tourist ratio 165 lodges 125 see also ecolodges logging, illegal 77 logistics 262–5, 265 logos 208–9 London, UK 168 Long Post Biosphere Reserve, Ontario, Canada 97 long-haul travel 172, 272 Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico 74 lotteries 189 LTU 111 Lyme disease 264 Madagascar 29, 114; ecotourism governance 224–5 Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa 223 mainstream nature tourists 24 Malaysia: ecolodges 268, 268–9; ecotourism 233–4; national parks 92; tourism policy 247 Maldives 111, 185 male ecotourists 122 management frameworks 185–7, 187 manatees 151 Manila Declaration on World Tourism, 1980 169 Manuel Antonio National Park, Costa Rica 194 Maori culture 58 marine protected areas 173 market regulation 228 market segmentation 207–8, 211, 211–13 market-based solutions 204–5 marketing 163, 205–14, 210, 211; challenges in 215, 314; and new technologies 216–18, 217 marketing research 206–8 Marsh, George Perkins 86 Maslow, A 133 mass ecotourism 12 mass tourism 6–7, 7, 8–9, 221; ecotourism as 58–60; and sustainable development 70–1, 72, 72–3 mass tourists 31, 32 Massachusetts, USA 126–7 MAVN (maximum allowable visitor number) 172 Mayan heartland, Mexico 189 meditative thinking 275 Mediterranean 170, 173 mega-fauna 29–30 MES (Multidimensional Ethics Scale) 162 Metis 79 Mexico 10, 186, 225; biosphere reserves 97; Cancún 7, 189; ecolodges 129; ecotourism ethics 137, 139; La Paz Bay 43; Los Tuxtlas 74; Mayan heartland case study 189; Monarch butterflies case study 76–8; monkey islands 198; Tres Garantías 74, 78; Yucatan 19, 97, 137, 139, 189, 271 Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Uganda 104 mini-guide programmes 114 minke whales 173–4, 229 mission statements 256 Monarch butterflies case study 76–8 money, local 191–3, 192 Mongolia 100–1 monopolistic competition 200–1 Montego Bay Marine Park 101 Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, Costa Rica 19, 65, 106, 194, 197 Montserrat 40 moose hunting, Sweden 45 moral suasion 201 motivation 133; of ecotourists 25, 26, 32; of tourists 22, 22–3 Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, USA 56 mountain gorillas 104–5 Multidimensional Ethics Scale (MES) 162 multinational corporations 221 multiplier effect 192–3 Mundo Maya region, Mexico 189 Municipal Corporations Act 1835 88 Namibia 45–6, 78 narwhal hunting 81 National Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP), Australia 156–7, 157, 158 National Park Authority 93 332 • Index national parks 89–91, 90; biodiversity conservation issues and challenges 97–8, 100–5, 103; contractual national parks 108; demarketing 217–18; and ecosystem management 91–3, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97; Europe 67–9; and gorilla tourism 104–5; and revenue 193–6, 195; and sustainable design 124–5 National Recreation and Parks Association 154 National Reserve System, Australia 108 National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy 67 National Survey on Recreation and the Environment, USA 42 National Wildlife Federation 131 Natura 2000 programme, European Union 97, 98 natural disasters 40 natural history 1–2 natural history tourism 11; Shetland, Scotland 85 natural resource-based tourism 43 natural resources 39–40, 140, 140; decline of 82; efficient use of 86–7; exploitation of 84–5; Ontario, Canada 69; value of 196–9, 197 natural selection 183 nature observation 53 nature tourism: accreditation 156–7, 157; Africa 11; hard and soft dimensions of 12, 12; relationship with ecotourism 12–13; revenue 193–6, 195; Texas case study 41–2; typology 23–4; USA case studies 41–2 see also NBT (nature-based tourism); wildlife tourism nature-based dimension of ecotourism 37, 44, 45; consumptive/non-consumptive debate 45–7, 49; and natural resources 39–40 see also ACT tourism; adventure tourism; cultural tourism; NBT (nature-based tourism); urban ecotourism; wildlife tourism NBT (nature-based tourism) 13, 15–16, 40–3; Australia 173; consumptive/non-consumptive debate 45–7, 49; impacts of 173; inconsistencies in 43–4; typology 42–3 see also nature tourism NEAP (National Ecotourism Accreditation Program), Australia 156–7, 157, 158 needs assessments 256–7, 257, 258; and evaluation 268 neoliberalism 225 Nepal 100, 102–3, 173 New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) scale 161 New Forest, Britain 172 New Jersey, USA 181 new tourism 252 New York, USA, Central Park 61 New Zealand 61, 170, 208, 224; ACE tourism 58, 58 NGOs (non-governmental organizations) 231–3 Nicaragua 92 Ningaloo, Australia 202 Niue 168 non-consumption 40, 128; consumptive/ non-consumptive debate 45–7, 49 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 231–3 non-use value (NUV) 196 North American Indians 82 not-for-profit institutions 215, 250 Nova Scotia, Canada 210 objectives 256 Odonata 30 Okavango Delta, Botswana 166 Omoro Ethnobotanical Park 235 Ontario, Canada: biosphere reserves 97; natural resources 69; parks 88–9; privately owned forests 205 open accessibility 196 Operation Wallacea 131 operators see tourism operators option values 196, 197 Ord River Irrigation Area, Australia 44 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 169 organisational attractions Ostional, Costa Rica 238 Oulanka PAN Park, Finland 159 outfitters 114–15 overt management approaches 180 P&O line 128 Pacific Rim National Park, Canada 195 PAGIS (Participatory Approach and Geographical Information Systems) 103 Panama 80, 92 Panama Canal 60 parks 88–91, 90; and ecosystem management 91–3, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97; preformed planning and management frameworks 185–7, 187; and revenue 193–6, 195 see also national parks; protected areas participation see local participation/benefits Participatory Approach and Geographical Information Systems (PAGIS) 103 participatory civil society 230 partnerships 236 Patagonia 19 PAVIM (Protected Area Visitor Impact Management) 186 pelicans 173 Penguin Island, Australia 117–18, 173 peripheral regions 60 personalised market segment 206 Peru 25, 79 pesticides 61 PGI (Professional Guide Institute) 115 Index • 333 Phang Nga Bay, Thailand 200 Philippines 102, 197–8 philosophy, of programmes 255 Phuket, Thailand 59, 60 Pinchot, Gifford 87 place (4Ps) 217, 218 planning and management frameworks 185–7, 187 plants, toxic 263 plastic bags 184 platforms 118–19 poaching, and gorilla tourism 104 Point Pelee National Park, Canada 29, 63–4 Poland 240 polar bears 19, 30, 45 policy see tourism policy politics 163, 224–6 pollution 146–7, 184 porbeagle sharks 98, 98, 99 Port Phillips Bay, Australia 174 Posada Amazonas ecolodge, Peru 79 poverty alleviation, and pro-poor tourism 223–4 Praia Forte, Bahia, Brazil 114 preservationism 87 price (4Ps) 217, 218 pricing 194–5, 195; and market regulation 228 private ecotourism entrepreneurs 200–1 private reserves 106, 107, 108 private sector companies 215 pro-poor tourism 223–4 product (4Ps) 217, 218 product life-cycle 181 product mentality 250 product shift 179 Professional Guide Institute (PGI) 115 professionalism 254–5 profit 270, 271; and satisfaction 250–3, 251, 252, 252, 253 Profitas Elias Monastery, Greece 97 programme planning 163, 249, 269; evaluation 265–9, 267, 268; implementation 265–6, 266; needs and resources 256–7, 257, 258, 259, 259–60, 260; philosophy, mission, goals and objectives 255–6; preformed planning and management frameworks 185–7, 187; and professionalism 254–5; programme design 261–5, 262, 265; satisfaction and profit 250–3, 251, 252, 252, 253 promotion (4Ps) 217, 218 PRONATURA, Mexico 10 Protected Area Visitor Impact Management (PAVIM) 186 protected areas 88–91, 90; biodiversity conservation issues and challenges 97–8, 100–5, 103; commons issues in 102, 103; and ecosystem management 91–3, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97; preformed planning and management frameworks 185–7, 187; and revenue 193–6, 195 see also national parks; parks protozoans 263 pseudo ecotourism 14, 15 psychographic research 25, 26, 27, 28 psychographic segmentation 212–13 public sector 215 Puritan settlers 85 Purros, Namibia 78 Quakers 106 Quebec City Declaration on Ecotourism, 2002 15, 158–9, 275, 277–82 Queenstown, New Zealand 170 Quest Nature Tours 270 Quintana Roo, Mexico 189 R.C Harris Filtration plant, Toronto, Canada 61 racism: environmental 147; in the tourism industry 166 Rainforest Alliance 157, 184 Ramada hotels 271, 272 Ramsey Island, Britain 150 Rara Avis, Costa Rica 126 rationalising 179 reciprocal altruism 133–4, 167, 234 recreation management 249; and user satisfaction 176–7, 179, 250–1, 251 Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) 91, 186 regulation 227–8, 229 reindeer 82 rejectionist/radical civil society 230 research ecotourists 131 resource users 76 resources 259, 259–60, 260 response distance 181 revenue, and parks 193–6, 195 Richtersveld National Park, South Africa 101 Rio Earth Summit, 1992 141, 247 risk management 262, 263–5, 265 risk, and adventure tourism 54, 55, 55, 56, 56 Romanticism 87–8 ROS (Recreation Opportunity Spectrum) 91, 186 rough ecotourists 23 royalties 194 Rwanda, gorilla tourism 104–5 safety 263–5, 265 Salvadorian Environmental Fund 231 Sami people 79–82 Sanctuary Cove, Australia 124 Sardinia 168 Saskatchewan, Canada 16, 92, 209, 246, 267, 267 satisfaction 176–7, 179, 250–3, 251, 252, 252, 253 school groups 23 scientific groups 23 334 • Index Scotland, Shetland Islands 6, 73, 85 Scott, Sir Walter 85 SCUBA diving 173 sea turtles 137–8, 139, 150 SeaCanoe 59, 60, 200, 231 secondary income 192 self-regulation 233–4 self-selection 177 Serengeti Plain 19 service quality 268, 268–9 see also evaluation shades of green classification 213–14 shallow ecotourism 12 Shark Bay, Western Australia 174 sharks 98, 98, 99; whale sharks 202 Shenzha County, Tibet 166 Shetland Islands, Scotland 6, 73, 85 Siam Safari 59, 60 Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve, Yucatan, Mexico 97 signs 118 SINC (Survey on the Importance of Nature to Canadians) 41 site management techniques 180 skill development, and indigenous people 80 sled dogs 160 SmartVoyager programme 184 Smith, Adam 220 smooth ecotourists 24 social capital 230–1 social responsibility 142 see also ethics social values segmentation 213 socio-cultural impacts of tourism 163, 165–8 soft ecotourism 12, 12, 32–3, 33, 47, 49, 58, 59–60, 128, 207 South Africa: Aboriginal ecotourism 79–80; Century City 61; ecotourism development 222–3; mega-fauna 29–30; national parks 19, 101–2, 193, 223; private reserves 106; and pro-poor tourism 223–4 South Carolina Nature-Based Tourism Association 15 South Carolina, USA 233 Spain 168 specialisation 24, 29–30, 30 spirituality 87–8 stakeholders: and tourism policy 243, 245, 246 see also local participation/benefits standards approach to evaluation 267, 267 stewardship, and Aboriginal ecotourism 81–3 stomach ailments 263 STSC (Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council) 157 sturgeon viewing 47 Sulawesi, Indonesia 131 summative evaluation 267 supply chains 70 surface materials 40 Survey on the Importance of Nature to Canadians (SINC) 41 sustainability 18, 33–4, 37, 167–8; and tourism 63–73, 66–7, 68, 71, 72 see also conservation; local participation/benefits sustainable design: and ecolodges 124–30, 125, 127, 129 sustainable development 272 sustainable forests 205 sustainable tourism see sustainability, and tourism Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council (STSC) 157 Sweden 45, 80, 230 Switzerland 220 SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis 260, 260 Taiwan 212, 213 Tambopata National Reserve, Peru 25 Tanzania 168 taxation 194 teleology 136, 144, 144, 149 Texas, USA, nature tourism case study 41–2 Thailand 27, 71; national parks 27, 101, 131, 238; Phuket 59, 60, 200 Thoreau, Henry David 87, 88 Tibet 166 Ticonderoga Bay Sanctuary Zone, Australia 174 tiered pricing 194–5, 196 tigers 203–4 time 24 Tl’azt’en First Nations people 79 tolerance distance 181 topography 40 Toronto, Canada, Green Tourism Association 61–2 total economic value (TEV) 196, 197 tour guides 112–14, 113; accreditation and certification 154; Galapagos Islands 183; and professionalism 255 tourism: definitions of 3–4, 249; and ethics 137–8, 138, 139, 140, 140–2, 143, 144, 144–7, 145, 147; and less developed countries 220–3; and reciprocal altruism 134–5 tourism attractions 4–6 Tourism Canada 53–4 Tourism Concern 66–7, 68 Tourism Industry Association of Canada 67 tourism operators 70, 110–12, 116, 121; Great Barrier Reef, Australia 190; self-regulation 233–4 Tourism Opportunity Spectrum 186 tourism policy 239–41, 247–8; ecotourism policy 241–3, 244–5, 246–7 Tourism Saskatchewan 246 tourist destinations, life cycles of 181–2, 185, i185 Index • 335 touristification 170 tourists: and lotteries 189; quality of 71; toying with 167; typologies 21–3 see also ecotourists Trans-Canada Highway 271 transcendentalism 87, 88 transitions zones (biosphere reserve system) 95 Transport Canada 97 travel cost method 196–7 Travel Guide Diploma, University College of the Cariboo (UCC), British Columbia 255 travel motivation 22, 22–3 Tree Top Walk (TTW), Australia 117–18 Tres Garantías, Yucatan, Mexico 74, 78 TRINET 208, 239 Tubbatha Reefs National Marine Park, Philippines 197–8 TUI 111 Turkey, national parks 260, 260 turtles 137–8, 139, 150 typologies: of cultural tourists 51–2; of ecotourists 23–5, 26, 27, 28, 29–30, 30; of nature tourists 23–4; of NBT (nature-based tourism) 42–3; of private reserves 107; of tourists 21–3 Uganda 104–5, 194 UK see Britain undeveloped resources 39–40 United Nations Environment Programme Industry and Environment 148 United Nations Human Environment Conference, 1972 169 United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) 170, 191, 277 see also World Tourism Organization (WTO) universities 250 University College of the Cariboo (UCC), British Columbia 255 urban ecotourism 60–2 US Forest Service 42 USA: frontier mentality 86, 89; manatees 151; national parks 11, 56, 89, 90, 91, 124–5, 180–1; nature tour operators 111; nature tourism 11, 41–2; protected areas management 100; psychographic segmentation 212–13; Puritan settlers 85; roots of conservation 86–8; tourism policy 247; and user satisfaction 176 use value (UV) 196 user fees 194–5 VAMP (Visitor Activity Management Process) 91, 186 Van Vihar National Park, Bhopal, India 149–50 Vancouver Island, Canada 208 Vancouver Winter Olympics, 2010 160 Vanuatu 114 vegetation 40 Venezuela 61 Victoria, Australia 116 viewing platforms 118–19 VIM (Visitor Impact Management) 186 Virgin Islands National Park initiative 124 Virunga National Park, Congo 104 Visitor Activity Management Process (VAMP) 91, 186 Visitor Impact Management (VIM) 186 visitor management, national parks 91 Volcán Irazú National Park, Costa Rica 194 Volcán Poás National Park, Costa Rica 194 Volcano National Park, Rwanda 104 volunteer ecotourism 131 Waikoloa, Hawaii 123 Wallace, Alfred Russel 183 Washington, USA 56 water: drinking water safety 263; as a natural resource 40 water adventure products 53 WCS (Wildlife Conservation Society) 225, 236 weather 40 Western Australia 116–18 Wet Tropics Management Authority (WTMA), Australia 208–9 Wetland of International Importance 92 whale hunting 81, 82 whale sharks 202 whale watching 18, 28, 53, 81, 210; and learning 119–20; marketing strategies 208; regulation of 228, 229 whales: beluga whales 229; killer whales 61; minke whales 173–4, 229; narwhal 81 White House Conference on Tourism, USA 42 whorism 166 Wilderness Act 1964 100 wilderness areas, attitudes to 84–5 Wilderness Education Association 154 wilderness tourism, Yukon, Canada 43–4, 51 wildlife: and ecotourism 172; value of 198–9 Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) 225, 236 wildlife tourism 2, 6, 48–51, 49, 53, 120; Africa 11; Canada 41; and viewing platforms 118–19 see also nature tourism wildlife tourists 25 Winfrey, Oprah 131 winter adventure products 53–4 Wisconsin, USA 47 World Bank 225 World Conservation Strategy, 1980 169 World Ecotourism Summit, Quebec City, Canada, 2002 see Quebec City Declaration on Ecotourism World Heritage Convention, 1972 95 336 • Index World Tourism Organization (WTO) 4, 170, 280, 282 see also United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) World Trade Organization 154, 170 World Wildlife Federation 104 World Wildlife Fund (WWF) 77, 225 WTMA (Wet Tropics Management Authority), Australia 208–9 WTO see World Tourism Organization; World Trade Organization Yellowstone National Park, USA 11, 89, 90 Yucatan, Mexico 19, 97, 137, 139, 189, 271 Yukon, Canada 43–4, 51 Zanzibar 166, 203 zoning: biosphere reserve systems 95; and EBT (environmentally based tourism) planning framework 187; national parks 89–91 zoos 37–8, 160, 161 ... http://www.world-tourism.org/newsroom/ Releases/more_releases/january20 02/ launch; see also Page and Dowling 20 02; Cater 20 02] These numbers indicate the disparate views on the economic impact of ecotourism One of the main reasons... impacts of ecotourism Alam (20 12) looked at the impacts of ecotourism through an assessment of the CO2 emissions of visitors to three forests offering opportunities in the UK The estimated CO2 sequestration... Nations World Tourism Organization’s (UNWTO’s claim that ecotourism constitutes 2? ??4 per cent of global tourism [WTO (20 02) International Year of Ecotourism launched in New York (online): http://www.world-tourism.org/newsroom/