Sport and corporate nationalisms part 2

SEGA Dreamcast SEGA Dreamcast: National Football Cultures and the New Europeanism Philip Rosson Commercial sponsorships have become an important element in most sports This is certainly true in English football where, since the early 1980s, shirt and kit sponsorships have generated important revenues for clubs at all levels Companies increasingly view sponsorships as an effective way to promote their corporate and/or product brands This chapter presents a case study of SEGA Europe’s use of a football shirt sponsorship in the launch of its new video gaming console and brand (the Dreamcast) in the UK market The sponsorship sought to capitalize on the popularity of football among the prime market segment for its product and to benefit from television and other media exposure The case study outlines the circumstances that led SEGA Europe and Arsenal FC to partner with each other, as well as subsequent developments It was prepared using secondary sources and interviews with key informants in football organizations, sports marketing firms, and football researchers.1 Introduction SEGA Enterprises, a Tokyo-based video game company, launched its new Dreamcast console in the Japanese market on November 27, 1998 North American and European introductions were planned for September 1999 SEGA expected that the Dreamcast console would challenge Sony’s PlayStation for market leadership Management at SEGA’s European subsidiary was considering football shirt sponsorships as one element in its launch and market development plans Why football? Because it was the number one sport in Europe and its fans’ demographics increasingly mirrored those for video gamers In addition, television was broadcasting more and more football games – often on a panEuropean basis – providing valuable exposure for companies and their brands Therefore, football seemed ideally suited to communicating with those most 167 Sport and Corporate Nationalisms interested in buying the Dreamcast This was particularly the case in the UK, where football was a national passion and video gaming was also a favorite pastime Consequently, in late 1998 SEGA Europe management was giving active consideration to partnering with a top English football club There was about a six-month window before a sponsorship deal would come into effect, and the Dreamcast launch was nine months away In other words, there was some pressure for a decision to be made London’s Arsenal FC was a logical football club for SEGA to consider as a sponsorship partner Arsenal has had a long and rich history Founded as the Royal Arsenal FC in Woolwich, Kent, in 1886, the club moved to its present location at Highbury in North London in 1913 (Soar and Tyler, 1989) It is one of a handful of English football teams that is well known and supported around the world and in the last decade, after Manchester United, has had the single best record of English clubs In December 1998, it was announced that Japanese electronics giant JVC would end its long-standing shirt sponsorship with Arsenal, effective June 30, 1999 This meant that Arsenal would have to seek another shirt sponsor for the 1999–2000 season, which kicked-off in late August The case study that follows examines SEGA and Arsenal in turn The industry environment of each organization is described, then the shirt sponsorship factors are outlined, followed by details of the shirt sponsorship deal that was struck, as well as subsequent developments A number of final comments bring the chapter to a close The Video Gaming Industry In the late 1990s, three Japanese companies fought for dominance of the global video game industry Despite its late entrance, Sony was the market leader Nintendo and SEGA had at various times occupied the top spot but these longstanding rivals currently trailed in Sony’s wake SEGA’s new entry – the Dreamcast video console – was launched in Japan late in 1998, and North American and European introductions were planned for September 1999 Nintendo was rumored to be launching a new product As a result, both companies expected to gain substantial ground on Sony and its extremely successful PlayStation However, Sony itself would be launching a new product – the PlayStation – in 2000 Product and game technology, market timing, and marketing flair were all critical to company success in this industry History The video game industry started in the 1980s and has gone through several cycles of boom and bust, with shakeouts of marginal companies and the arrival 168 SEGA Dreamcast of newcomers The industry grew in the late 1980s when Nintendo and SEGA used sixteen-bit technology to develop much faster and more sophisticated games A period of depressed sales occurred in the early 1990s when PC technology played leapfrog and drew users away from video game companies In late 1994, video gaming broke back when Sony introduced its innovative PlayStation This development changed the industry dramatically The quality of images and sounds made possible by the technology meant that the industry was seen as selling something more than a toy For the first time, large numbers of adult users were attracted to video gaming Nintendo launched the N64 in 1997 in an attempt to regain some ground In late 1998, all eyes were watching as the once preeminent SEGA launched its own innovative Dreamcast game system in Japan, based on 128-bit technology The games industry is substantial By the end of 1999, it was forecast that the installed base would number more than 100 million Sony PlayStations, Nintendo N64s, and SEGA Saturns and Dreamcasts globally Household penetration levels were high and the value of industry sales (consoles and games) was about US$20 billion in 1999 (£12.2 billion)2 – larger than Hollywood box-office revenues for the first time (Business, 1999) SEGA Competitors Sony was the competitor to beat, dominating almost everywhere with market shares in the 60 percent to 70 percent range The PlayStation had proven to be a star product for Sony It was estimated that 50 million homes owned the gaming console in 1999, and that in the fourth quarter of 1998, it provided 16 percent of Sony’s sales and 44 percent of profits (Fulford, 1999) However, after four years of booming PlayStation sales, volumes were down (Sony warns, 1999) Sony was planning to introduce its PlayStation to the Japanese market in time for Christmas 1999 Early reports suggested the new console would be a formidable competitor Technically, the console would be able to outperform PCs and workstations and would be “backwards compatible” – old game libraries would not be made obsolete by the console This was a benefit for users, software producers and resellers alike Nintendo was second in most countries, accounting for much of the rest of the market It entered video gaming in 1983 and the eight-bit Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) dominated the second-generation of consoles Nintendo also pioneered hand-held games and still leads that market with the GameBoy Its success with the NES made it slow to develop a successor and the sixteen-bit Super NES (and later N64) failed to meet profit expectations Although it had not publicly announced plans for a successor to the N64, Nintendo was rumoured to be working on a console to be launched in Japan in time for the important Christmas 2000 holiday 169 Sport and Corporate Nationalisms Convergence in entertainment Video gaming was fast becoming a “mainstream activity,” appealing to a more mature user In the early 1990s, eight- to sixteen-year-old males primarily owned video consoles Following the release of the PlayStation, consoles sold across a wider age range (eight to twenty-nine years), with the average owner being seventeen years old (Littlewood, 1999) The broadening in the appeal of video gaming meant that close parallels existed between the prime market segments for gaming products and football Given the size and continued growth prospects, it was rumoured that Microsoft had designs on the US$15 billion (£9.1 billion) global video-game market Another factor was the advanced graphics capabilities of the new consoles, which were seen as challenging the future of PC-gaming and, more broadly, interactive entertainment, including the Internet and digital TV Microsoft could not allow these markets to move away from its domination (Ward and Chang, 1999) SEGA and the Dreamcast SEGA had seen its share of world markets slide dramatically since 1992 Its sixteen-bit MegaDrive console, launched in 1989 as the Genesis in North America, was the dominant third-generation gaming machine However, SEGA was unable to make the transition to the next generation of player (using CDROM disks) The Saturn console, launched the same year as Sony’s PlayStation, never met corporate objectives (Schofield, 1999) Consequently, SEGA’s share had gone from about 50 percent in the early 1990s to stand at little more than percent in the US market in 1998 In the UK, SEGA’s market share was in the percent to percent range SEGA’s market decline created difficulties Smaller volumes of business meant there was less interest on the part of software developers in producing games and less money for marketing and advertising Because of lower spending, sales plunged further and so the spiral continued These difficulties affected SEGA’s corporate performance Gross sales fell from US$3.5 billion (£2.1 billion) in 1996, to US$2.5 billion (£1.6 billion) in the year ended March 1998 (Edwards, 1999) A New Start SEGA had what it believed would be a winning combination: the newest gaming console backed by an aggressive marketing strategy SEGA was determined to win back a leadership position in the video game market The Dreamcast was the first gaming system to be designed around 128-bit technology and, it was claimed, this enabled SEGA to offer a system that ran three times as fast as the latest arcade game and fifteen-times as fast as Sony’s PlayStation 170 SEGA Dreamcast Launched in Japan late in 1998, the debut of Dreamcast in North America was set for September 9, 1999 The European launch was planned for September 23, 1999 Being first to market had proven important in the video game market and SEGA expected to have a lead of at least one-year over Sony and Nintendo with its “next generation” console The Japanese launch had gone well, with 900,000 units sold by March 1999 The console was priced at the equivalent of US$250 (about £150) Initially, nine games were available for use on the console and SEGA had signed software licenses with fifty companies (Edwards, 1999) The president of SEGA Enterprises spoke of the Dreamcast capturing half the global market for gaming consoles However, industry observers were skeptical that SEGA could achieve at this level, noting Sony’s dominance, SEGA’s lost momentum, and reduced interest by software developers as obstacles that lay in its way (Littlewood, 1999) European Plans In preparation for the European launch of the Dreamcast, London-based SEGA Europe made a number of management and organizational changes The senior managers appointed had experience in the music and TV businesses Others had backgrounds in video games, software and advertising The plan was to centralize activities so as to take control of advertising and marketing SEGA then set about planning the £50 million to £60 million marketing campaign to launch the Dreamcast in Europe Two advertising agencies were signed to assist the company: Bartle Boyle Hegarty, to deal with brand advertising, and M&C Saatchi, which was to handle other activities, including sponsorship, direct and digital marketing, and sales promotion Industry members knew that the Dreamcast launch would determine SEGA’s future in gaming As one games analyst put it, “SEGA has to make this work; it has no contingency plans It is heavily into debt to fund the marketing” (Littlewood, 1999) The company’s marketing approach was signaled when the European Marketing Director said “We are here to launch a brand [Dreamcast] first, a console second.” SEGA clearly wished to reverse the lingering view that the company and its brands were not “cool” The key was to make Dreamcast “famous” by linking the brand with activities and personalities that are popular with, and appeal to youths and young adults An early indicator of SEGA’s plans was provided by the March 1999 European-wide sponsorship of the premiere of the futuristic thriller film eXistenZ (Littlewood, 1999) Pan-European promotional plans also involved cinema advertisements at all venues showing the new Star Wars movie The Phantom Menace, to be followed by TV advertisements until Christmas Because the Dreamcast console was the first 171 Sport and Corporate Nationalisms to provide Internet access, these advertisements would stress the possibility of multi-player gaming online SEGA also planned to install the new consoles in 50 cinema complexes throughout the UK for consumer trial, as well as at train stations and other urban locations on the launch day (Campbell, 1999) Football Sponsorship Another marketing vehicle that was seriously considered by SEGA was the sponsorship of football teams in major European markets Commercial sponsorship of football events, teams and players was growing quickly and this fact had not escaped SEGA Europe management, who saw big possibilities for capitalizing on the popularity and drama of the game Commercial sponsorship is different from advertising and has been defined as “ the purchase (in cash or kind) of an association with a team, event, etc in return for the exploitable commercial potential linked to that activity” (Meenaghan, 1983) High profile brands adorned the shirts of most leading English football teams These included global brands, such as Packard Bell (Leeds) and national brands, like Newcastle Brown Ale (Newcastle United) With increasing levels of TV coverage of big league and cup games in England, as well as European competitions involving top English clubs, considerable exposure was possible Further, as one sponsorship consultant put it “Sport is a universal language that crosses boundaries and elicits a lot of passion Companies want to associate their brand with such powerful passions, and sponsorship can deliver this” (Bell and Campbell, 1999) The Launch It was expected that the Dreamcast would be launched at a retail price of £199 in the UK, compared to street prices of £99.99 for both the PlayStation and N64 Some ten games were expected to be available for the European Dreamcast launch and a further twenty games were expected in time for Christmas 1999 (Littlewood, 1999) Whether Sony and Nintendo would engage in price cutting was unclear SEGA’s plans elicited varying responses Some industry observers anticipated that the Dreamcast would sell well up to Christmas but that sales would then fall away because European consumers would be prepared to wait for the new machines Sony and Nintendo would introduce late in 2000 Other observers were more critical: they did not see a long-term place for SEGA in the industry and argued that the company should focus on its strengths in software development and write for other platforms (Killgren, 1998) SEGA Europe’s CEO’s response was that that the Dreamcast was a reality whereas PlayStation and Nintendo’s new console were “just theory.” SEGA forecast that European sales would total one million units in the first year and that by Christmas 2000, 172 SEGA Dreamcast it expected to “have sold 1.5 million units and to have more than 100 games We will have a great advantage” (Edwards, 1999) Football in England Football had seen a resurgence of interest in England Through the 1980s, attendance at games had declined quite sharply A combination of factors explained this situation: an economic recession in the early part of the decade; hooliganism at grounds, and on the way to and from games; and crowded and antiquated spectator facilities From 1987 on, the situation changed First, a consumer boom following the recession increased leisure spending Second, government and clubs alike took action to deal with football violence and so make football a safe spectator sport once again Third, following the death of ninety-six fans at a game in Sheffield as a result of policing and stadium problems, the Taylor Report made sweeping recommendations about safety and comfort within grounds Television The increased popularity of English football was also a result of TV developments The advent of satellite and cable pay TV brought new companies into the industry, which broke the cartel of the established channels and resulted in larger contracts for the right to televise more football Sports programming delivered large numbers of viewers to the TV channels, which, in turn, permitted the selling of prime-time advertising slots But TV companies were not the only winners Clubs benefitted from TV in two ways: first, substantial revenues flowed from new TV contracts; and second, the greater number of games aired at prime time fuelled fan interest and participation Revenue Sources Football teams generate revenues through a variety of activities Historically, the major source of revenue was gate receipts Over time, the combination of more diversified operations and lucrative TV contracts had reduced the importance of ticket sales Table 9.1 shows that gate receipts still accounted for the largest stream of football club revenues – 36 percent of total revenues in 1998–9, but TV was growing in importance (up from 21 percent of total revenues in 1996–7, to 26 percent in 1997–98) British football clubs were at the forefront in “off-the-field” developments that have produced new revenue streams The resurgence in football’s popularity (and, to some extent, its move upmarket) has attracted numerous sponsoring corporations One type is the so-called shirt sponsor, while another is the kit sponsor Shirt sponsors are sometimes referred to as club sponsors because their presence is very obvious at the club in question As well as appearing on the 173 Sport and Corporate Nationalisms Table 9.1 Premier League sources of revenue* Percent Main revenue streams Gate receipts Television Retail/merchandising Other commercial activities 1996–97 1997–98 37 21 21 21 36 26 17 21 *Average data based on information from nine Premier clubs Source: Deloitte & Touche (1999, p 12) team’s shirts,3 the sponsor’s name/logo was usually very much in evidence at the stadium, on match programs and tickets, Web sites and so forth Manufacturers of sports clothing such as Adidas, Nike, Umbro and Reebok had kit sponsorship arrangements with leading football clubs As well as supplying free kit, sponsors paid clubs a base fee and a portion of replica kit sales (the latter essentially being licensing fees) There was a strong market for replica kits Children and teenagers wore the kit when playing football and as casual wear Some adults also wore replica shirts at home, as well as to matches Typically, about 22.5 percent of the retail shirt price would flow to the manufacturer and percent to the club (Szymanski and Kuypers, 1999) In addition to replica kits,4 most Premier clubs offered a full range of sports and leisure wear, as well as books, videos, jewelry and other items, sold via club shops or through catalog operations Sales also took place through independently owned sports shops and chains Accordingly, retail and merchandising operations had become significant revenue streams Football as Business Interest in football was rekindled and large amounts of TV and sponsorship money flowed into the game in the late 1980s and the 1990s Whereas clubs had been largely owned and run as a hobby or as a service to the community, they were increasingly viewed as “for-profit” businesses in the 1990s.5 It was felt that some teams could break out of their traditional local areas and, in these cases, become national or even global brands.6 Top teams already had a fan base around the world and with increased coverage of English Premier games on local TV networks these supporters were able to follow their team and favorite players Geographical market expansion developments such as these opened up major possibilities for merchandising and sponsorship growth 174 SEGA Dreamcast Figure 9.1 Value chain for football business Source: Salomon Brothers Inc (1997, p 67) Considerable amounts of money were being spent to attract world-class players to top English clubs There existed a strong positive link between a team’s performance on the field and the club’s profitability as a business, so clubs attempted to assemble the best possible squad of players (see Figure 9.1) Arsenal Football Club Arsenal Finances Mirroring developments at other top clubs, Arsenal’s revenue streams had grown and diversified in recent years Home games were invariably played to a capacity crowd of 38,000 fans – a mix of season and regular ticket holders Arsenal was considering a number of options for increasing gate receipts The options included expanding its present ground at Highbury or building a new stadium Arsenal generated about 40 percent of its total revenues from ticket sales Arsenal had been a major beneficiary of the TV contract in recent years It received £9.7 million as its share of the domestic TV payments in 1997–8 (Deloitte & Touche, 1999) The eighteen-year shirt sponsorship deal with JVC was said to have been worth about £20 million to Arsenal since 1981 (JVC ends, 1998) Arsenal’s kit sponsor is Nike, which had expanding interests in football and had established relationships with top clubs in several leagues in Europe, such as Barcelona and Inter Milan One report stated that Nike’s kit sponsorship of Arsenal was worth £40 million over seven years (Fry, 1997) 175 Sport and Corporate Nationalisms On the merchandising front, 350,000 Arsenal replica shirts were sold in 1996– at a price of about £40 each Although replica kits were the major items sold, other merchandise was sold through two Arsenal shops and a mail order operation Arsenal’s mail order catalogue filled more than sixty pages Like other major teams, Arsenal had invested heavily to improve the team In 1998–9, there were about thirty players in the first-team squad, almost all of whom had represented their country at a junior or senior level The cosmopolitan nature of the Arsenal team was reflected by the fact that it included six Frenchmen, two from the Netherlands, and one from each of six other nations The balance of the squad was British and included four current English international players Arsenal’s finances were sound In terms of revenues and profits, it ranked fifth or higher among Premier League clubs However challenges were ever-present The Relationship with JVC In December 1998, it was announced that Japanese electronics giant JVC would end its long-standing shirt sponsorship with Arsenal, effective June 30, 1999 At the time of the announcement, Arsenal’s vice chairman said: “There is no animosity JVC have decided to channel their energies elsewhere It has been a marvellous relationship over 18 years and we have both wished each other well” (JVC drops, 1998) The Arsenal sponsorship arrangement was with JVC’s British subsidiary The subsidiary’s trade marketing manager stated “the sponsorship has certainly done the job for us in brand awareness.” However, management had decided to move the budget into mainstream activities so as to bolster JVC Great Britain’s modest current advertising budget (estimated to be about £200,000 in 1997) Sponsorship Research Although sponsorship was big business in football, the commercial nature of the agreements meant that detailed information on the terms struck between the parties, as well as the results achieved over the life of an agreement, were not publicly available Three independent research studies provide some general insights According to one market research company, football sponsorships provided a way of reaching one in two British males, with a fairly even distribution by age and social class When asked to provide names of companies sponsoring football teams or leagues, on average between percent and 10 percent of males sampled were able to so correctly When prompted with a company name, the level of correct response rose to 12 percent to 35 percent One conclusion reached was that sponsorship could provide considerable exposure for a company, especially via TV (Wright, 1988) 176 Index Bulkeley, Morgan, 246 Bush, George H.W., 103 Bush, George W., 103, 131, 132, 135, 137–9 Byrd, Senator Robert, 138 Cablevision, 191, 192 Caisse de dépôt et placement of Québec, 190, 215, 216 Calgary Flames, 205 Camel, 51 see also R.J Reynolds canada.com, 209, 210 Canadian Broadcasting Act, 201 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), 200–3, 207, 210, 220 CBC/Radio-Canada, 200, 201, 220 Canadian Cable Systems Ltd, 212 Canadian House of Commons Standing Joint Committee on Official Languages, 203 Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), 201, 213, 218, 219 Canadian Telecommuncations Act, 201 Canal Canal Evasion Inc., 215 Canal Indigo GP, 215 Canedo, 52 Canoe, 214 Canon, 51–3 Canterbury of New Zealand Ltd, 74 CanWest CanWest Entertainment Inc., 209, 211 CanWest Global Communications, 203, 204, 208, 210, 211, 213, 216 CanWest Interactive, 211 CanWest Media Inc., 209 CanWest Radio New Zealand Ltd, 209 CanWest Studios, 209 Radioworks New Zealand Ltd, 209 Capital Communications CDPQ Inc., 215 capitalism, 2, 4, 5, 7, 103, 109, 121, 128, 130, 134, 136, 253, 262 consumer capitalism, 270, 271 corporate capitalism, 127 global capitalism, 1, 67, 68, 80, 81, 86, 137, 255, 256 industrial capitalism, 228, 255 late capitalism, 244, 256 transnational capitalism, 85, 121, 128, 133, 137, 256 Capstar Broadcasting, 239 Carisbrook Stadium, 74 Carlsberg, 38, 178 Carnegie Steel, 232 Carnegie, Andrew, 232, 233 Carter, Jimmy, 133, 138 Cashman, Brian, 244 cause-related marketing, 118 Cavan, Harry, 47 CBC/Radio-Canada, 200, 201, 220 see also Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) celebrity, 156 global celebrity, 156 Center for Performance Excellence, 93 Central Council for Physical Recreation (CCPR), 39, 47, 62 Central Pacific Railroad, 233 CF Television Inc., 206 CF Cable TV Inc., 215 CFMT-TV, 212 Chadwick, Henry, 231 Chagnon, Andre, 215, 216 Champion, 20 Chancellor Media, 239 Channel 4, 17, 18, 20, 21 Channel 4, The Big Breakfast, 17, 20 Chartrier, Philippe, 50, 60 Chastain, Brandi, 111 Chelsea Football Club, 39, 178, 193 Cheltenham Horseracing Festival, 158 Chevron Corporation, 88 Chevron-Gulf, 88 see also Gulf Corporation Chicago Cubs, 239 Chicago Tribune, 239 Chicago White Stockings, 229, 231 China Central Television (CCTV), 264, 266–8, 270 China Kejian Company, 165, 266, 270 278 Index Chinese Basketball Association (CBA), 264, 267–70, 272 Chinese Football Association (CFA), 265–7, 269, 272 Chinese Ministry of Information Industry, 266 Chinese Sport Assocation (CSA), 272 Chinese State Administration for Radio Film and Television, 266 Chinese State Council, 261 Chove, Chung-won, 62 Chronicle of Philanthropy (journal), 90 Cinzano, 51, 52 civic volunteerism, 120 civil society, 83, 104 Classic Sports Network, 195 Clean & Clear, 123 Clinton, Bill, 9, 90, 103, 109, 120, 123, 244 CNN, 197–9 CNN/SI, 113, 199 Coca-Cola, 18, 20, 38, 40, 42–6, 51–3, 57, 58, 118, 120, 121, 148, 263 Cold War, 36, 83 Comcast Corporation, 112, 113 commercialization, 38, 41, 44, 48, 228 commodification, 10, 29, 30, 35, 68, 73, 77, 78, 111, 113, 133, 189, 200, 219, 220 commodity chains, commodity sign, 15, 263, 268 Communism, 263, 268 community relations, 83, 100, 102 Compton, Denis, 37 Compuserve Europe, 197, 199 Conference Board, 84, 88, 91 Confucianism, 253, 261–3, 267 conservatism, 120 consumer culture, 9, 117, 119, 128, 133 convergence, 188, 202, 204, 208, 213, 217–19 Cooper, Henry, 37 Copps, Sheila, 203 Corinthian, 20 Cornhill Insurance, 40 corporate citizen, corporate citizenship, 89, 104 corporate feminism, 98 corporate imperialism, 270 corporate nationalism, 1, see also nationalism corporate philanthropy, 87–9 global corporate philanthropy, 8, 9, 84, 85, 87 global corporate strategic philanthropy and community relations programs (GSCR), 8, 9, 84–6, 90–2, 97, 100, 103–5, 118 corporate social responsibility, 104 corporatization, 7, 36, 100, 109 Cosmopolitan (magazine), 119 cosmopolitanism, 4, 102, 255 Council for Aid to Education, 87 Coventry City Football Club, 178 Cox Communications, 112 Cox Enterprises, 112, 113 Cracker Jack, 237 Crain, Rance, Csanadi, Peter, 55 CTV Inc., 205, 206 CTV Specialty Television Inc., 205, 206 CTV Sportsnet, 192 CTV Television Inc., 205 cultural citizenship, 109, 110, 114, 122 cultural identity, 73 see also identity, national identity cultural intermediaries, 9, 145, 149, 154, 158, 161 cultural nationalism, 200, 220 see also nationalism, national identity cultural policy, 188, 190, 200 cultural politics, 214 cultural studies, 115, 116 Curt Flood Act, 235 see also Flood, Curt Daily Express, 18 Daimler-Benz, 259 Dallas Mavericks, 263 Dallas Stars, 239 Dassler, Adi, 41 Dassler, Horst, 40–51, 53, 54, 57–9 de Coubertin, Pierre, 38 279 Index emerging economies, 254, 257 Emirates Airlines, 39 Energizer batteries, 52 English Football Association (FA), 38, 183 FA Cup, 181 English Premier League (EPL), 9, 38, 174, 176, 177, 181, 192, 247, 262, 264–8 ESPN, 192, 194–6, 205, 206, 208 ESPN Classic Canada, 195, 205, 206, 237 ESPN Magazine, 195 ESPN News, 195 ESPN Star Sports, 192, 193, 195, 237, 267, 268 see also Star TV ESPN.com, 195 ESPN2, 195 EXPN, 195 EXPN.com, 195 Esso, 40 European Broadcasting Union (EBU), 55, 62 European Football Championships, 51 Europeanism, 167, 171, 178 Eurosport, 148, 195 Everton Football Club, 178, 265, 266, 270 export processing zones, 269 Deford, Frank, 132 Deng, Xiaoping, 258 Dentsu Inc., 51, 245 Denzel, Michael, 264 Derby County Football Club, 177, 178 Derby Storm Basketball Club, 30 deregulation, 3, 81, 87, 117, 218, 221, 237, 256, 267 Detroit Red Wings, 202 Dexter, Ted, 37 Diageo, 150 diaspora, 121, 160 Irish diaspora, 160 Digital Latin America, 239 Direct Sales Association, 92 Direct TV, 191 Discovery Communications, 112 Discovery Channel, 112 disjuncture, 13, 15, 16, 155 Disney Corporation, 113, 121, 188, 191–6, 205, 206, 208, 216, 217, 239, 254 Disney Channel, 195 Disney Cruise Line, 195 Disney World, 195 Disneyland, 195 Epcot Center, 195 Walt Disney Company, The, 240 Walt Disney Publishing, 195 disorganized capitalism, 255 Divac, Vladi, 16 Donewald, Bob, 28, 32 Doubleday, Abner, 232, 234, 246 Dr Martens Shoes, 178 Drew Pearson Apparel, 20 Drucker, Peter, 88 economic national champion, 228, 232–4, 238, 240 economic nationalism, 233, 235 see also nationalism economic rationality, 110 Eden Park, 75 Edmonton Oilers, 203, 205 EDS, 178 Electronic Arts, 20 Elonex, 178 Faceoff.com, 210 Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), 36, 38–41, 43–62, 262, 264, 265 FIFA Development Programme, 43 FIFA Futuro Programme, 57 FIFA House, 43 FIFA Under-17 World Championship, 45 FIFA Women’s World Cup, 111, 112, 138 FIFA World Cup, 7, 35, 36, 39–41, 44–6, 50, 52, 53, 55, 59, 157, 158 Argentina 1978, 45 France 1998, 53, 56 Germany 2006, 54, 55 Japan/Korea 2002, 53–5, 59, 158, 159, 264 Mexico 1986, 52 280 Index Spain 1982, 36 USA 1994, 52, 53, 55 FIFA World Youth Championship, 43–5 Federation Internationale de L’automobile (FIA), 259 femininity, 93, 102, 133, 134 feminism, 99, 101, 137 Fenway Park, 248 Ferguson, Cathy, 118 Fiat, 52 Financial Times, 54 Financial World, 238 Fire Department of New York, 136 Fireworks Entertainment Inc., 211 Flood, Curt, 234, 246 Football Association (FA) Cup, 181 Fordism, 255, 256 global Fordism, 256, 269 post-Fordism, 256 Fortune, 92, 198 Fosters, 259, 260 Foudy, Julie, 120 Fox Broadcasting Company, 192, 238, 239 Fox Cable Networks, 192 Fox Entertainment Group, 191, 192, 210, 211 Fox Film Entertainment, 192 Fox Home Entertainment, 192 Fox News, 198 Fox Pan American Sports LLC, 239 Fox Sports, 187, 193, 213, 237 Fox Sport Television, 130 Fox Sports Enterprises, 192 Fox Sports International, 239 Fox Sports Networks, 192 Fox Sports World, 210 Fox Sports World Canada, 209, 210 Fox SportsNet, 212, 239 FoxSports.com, 192 Fox Studios, 192 Fox Television, 131 Twentieth Century Fox TV, 192 Twentieth Century Fox, 20, 192 Foxtel, 192 FoxTrax puck, 187, 220 Franklin, 236 Frosties, 19, 20 FUEL, 192 Fuji, 51, 52 Fuji Film, 53, 259 Fuji Xerox, 53 see also Xerox G8, 256 Garan Padano, 52 Garcia, Sergio, 37 Gasol, Pau, 16 Gatorade, 110, 123, 131, 237 Gazette, The, 200, 203, 204, 209, 216 gender gender identity, 101 gender politics, 92 gender roles, 93, 114 General Assembly of International Sports Federations (GAISF), 43, 48, 62 General Electric, 232, 259 General Motors, 52, 87, 143, 232, 259 Generation Y, 123 GI Bill, 87 Giles, Bill, 235 Gillette, 45, 52, 53, 123, 237 Giuliani, Rudolph, 136 Glamour, 119 global brands, 14, 92, 102, 113, 145, 150, 153, 160, 162, 172, 174, 237, 247 global capitalism, 1, 67, 68, 80, 86, 137, 255, 256 see also capitalism global celebrity, 156 see also celebrity Global Communications Ltd, 209 global corporate strategic philanthropy and community relations programs (GSCR), 8, 9, 84–6, 90–2, 97, 100, 103–5, 118 see also corporate philanthropy global corporations, see also multinational corporations, transnational corporations global culture, 2, 143 global sport culture, 10 281 Index global economy, 143, 238, 240, 244, 253, 255, 257, 262, 271 global enterprise network, 228 global Fordism, 256, 269 see also Fordism global marketplace, 4, 9, 102, 154, 238, 241, 256, 262 global sport marketplace, see also transnational marketplace global media conglomerate, 191 global media event, 127 global media oligopoly, 10, 187–90, 199, 218–20 global sport culture, 10 see also global culture global sport marketplace, see also global marketplace, transnational marketplace Global Television Network Inc., 208–10 globalization, 1–4, 35, 67, 70, 75, 86, 90, 91, 129, 130, 143–5, 147, 190, 201, 221, 242, 244, 245, 254, 255, 257, 261, 263, 264 Globe and Mail, 205, 207, 216 glocal, glocalization, 12 GO Network, 195 Goodwill Games, 197, 198 Gourd, Daniel, 203 governmentality, 114–17 Grace, W.G., 37 Granada Media Group, 181 Great American Ballpark, 248 Green Shields Stamps, 40 Greive, Howard, 74, 75 Ground Zero, 134 Guidestar, 90 Guinness, 9, 58, 144, 145, 149–63 Guinness All-Ireland Hurling Championship, 153, 158 Guinness, Arthur, 149 Gulf Corporation, 88 see also Chevron Corporation Gulf War, 133 Hackett, John, 78 Hamm, Mia, 111 Harcourt, Gordon, 78, 79 Harper Collins Publishers, 192 Harvard Business Review, Havelange, Joao, 36, 39–46, 49, 50, 52, 58–60 HealthSouth, 123 hegemonic masculinity, 134 see also masculinity Heineken, 259 Hempel, Klaus, 51, 53 Hempel-Lenz and Partner AG, 53, 54 Hendricks, John S., 112 heritage, 156, 157 heterogeneity, 162 Hewlett-Packard, 178 Hicks, Thomas, 239 Highbury Stadium, 168, 175, 181 Hingis, Martina, 37, 111 Hiram Bithorn Stadium, 242 Hockey Night in Canada, 202, 203, 207, 220 HOK Sport, 248 Hollinger, 210 Holmes, Chief Justic Oliver Wendell, 233 Home Box Office (HBO) Channel, 196–8 Home Team Sports, 192 homogenization, 1–4, 15, 21, 131, 132, 147, 148, 162, 190, 259 Hoop, 18 horizontal integration, 144, 190, 191, 194, 196, 199, 204, 208, 211, 214 see also vertical integration Horne, Guy, 267 Houston Rockets, 263, 264 Howell Committee, 39, 49, 50 see also Central Council for Physical Recreation (CCPR) Howell, Lord Denis, 39, 41, 47–50, 60, 63 Huffy Sports, 20 Hula-Hoops, 19, 20 Hulbert, William, 229, 231, 233, 246 Hunt, Leigh, 36 Hybridity, 13, 118, 121 Hyundai, 53, 112, 118 IBM, 256, 259 ICQ, 197 identification, 28, 122, 130, 136 282 Index identity, 4–10, 15, 24, 25, 30, 67, 70, 72, 73, 80, 93, 132, 147, 243, 255, 257, 260, 262 cultural identity, 73 gender identity, 101 identity politics, 24, 30 see also politics of identity indigenous identity, 8, 67 local identity, 14–16, 25, 26, 29, 30 national identity, 10, 26, 29, 30, 35, 68, 73, 109, 113, 121, 129, 147, 148, 158, 202, 253 politics of identity, 8, 67, 68 IEC in Sport, 267 IKEA, 147 imagined community, imagined nation, 110, 131, 188 see also national identity, nationalism Impact Project, 90 INA Insurance, 52 Independent Television (ITV, UK), 17, 18, 20, 21, 24 ITV2, 17, 20 indigenous culture, 8, 14, 67–80 see also indigenous identity indigenous identity, 8, 67–80 see also identity industrial capitalism, 228, 255 Industrial Media, 211 Industrial Revolution, 145 industrialism, 256 see also post-industrialism Infoseek, 196 Inside Sport, 18, 20 Insight Sports Ltd, 205 intellectual property rights, 8, 67, 69, 70, 77, 78 Inter Milan (Football Club), 175 International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF), 36, 46, 48, 53, 62 IAAF World Cup, 51 International Assembly of National Organizations of Sport, 48 International Basketball Federation (FIBA), 21, 22 FIBA magazine, 20 International Management Group (IMG), 36, 47, 48, 62, 256, 259, 262, 265 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 3, 105, 256 international non-government organization (INGO), 59, 62 see also non-government organization International Olympic Committee (IOC), 36, 38, 40, 42, 45, 46, 48, 50, 51, 53, 58, 61, 62, 259 IOC Museum, 38 International Sport and Leisure (ISL), 35, 39, 40, 50–60, 62 International Tennis Federation (ITF), 50, 60 Internationalization, 91, 243, 257 of labor, 242, 248 Internet Broadcasting System (USA), 209, 211 Irabu, Hideki, 245 ISMM Investments, 54 Italia Railways, 52 Italian Post Office, 52 J Sakazaki Marketing Ltd, 245 Jacobs Field, 248 Jia A League, 264, 268 Jia B League, 264, 268 Jiang, Zemin, 268 Jiannanchun (Football Club), 265 JJB Sports, 19 John Hancock, 38, 131 Johnson & Johnson, 118 JskyB, 239 see also Sky Television JSM Group, The, 227, 245 Jung, Andrea, 92, 93, 105 JVC, 51–3, 168, 175, 176, 179 JVC Great Britain, 176 Kajima Corporation, 248 Kajima USA, 248 Kaser, Dr, 43 Keller, Tommy, 43 Kellogg Company, 19, 20 Keynesianism, 255 283 Index Killeen, Al, 42, 44 Kim, Dr Un Yong (Mickey Kim), 48, 61, 62 King, Billie Jean, 110 Kintetsu Buffaloes, 227 Kirch, 54 Kirilenko, Andrei, 16 Kirin, 237 Klepper, Anne, 91 Kmart, Kodak, 38, 88 Konami, 20, 236 KP Foods, 19, 20 Kraft, 40 KT-Korea/NTT-Japan, 53 Kuhn, Bowie, 234 Kwik Goal, 123 La Soiree du hockey, 200, 202, 203, 207, 216, 220 labor practices, 85 Lardner, Ring, 234 Lastra, Barry, 88 late capitalism, 244, 256 see also capitalism LCN, 215 Le SuperClub Videotron Itee, 214, 215 Learning Channel, 112 Leeds United Football Club, 172, 178, 193 Leicester Riders Basketball Club, 23–30, 32 Lenz, Jurgen, 53 Levitt, Theodore, 1–4 Li, Tie, 266 Liaoning (Football Club), 266 Liberty Media Corp., 239 Liberty Media International, 239 Life, 198 Lifeserv Corporation (USA), 209, 211 Lincoln, Howard, 236, 247 Lion Red beer, 73 Liverpool Football Club, 38, 178 LOBB Design, 248 local consumption, 14, 21, 23 see also localization local culture, 2, local identity, 14–16, 25, 26, 29, 30 local resistance, 1,2, 13, 29, 187–221 local-global nexus, 13–16, 29 localization, 15, 270 Lomu, Jonah, 37 London Irish Football Club, 158 Los Angeles Dodgers, 191, 217, 237–40, 247 see also Brooklyn Dodgers Los Angeles Kings, 191, 192 Los Angeles Lakers, 191, 192 Louis-Dreyfus, Robert, 55 Lycos, 207 see also Sympatico-Lycos M&C Saatchi, 171 Maclean Hunter Ltd, 213 Madison Square Garden, 191, 192 Majestic Apparel, 236 Major League Baseball (MLB), 9, 10, 14, 130, 131, 134, 136, 138, 213, 227, 228, 231, 234–48 MLB Advanced Media LP, 237 MLB All-Star Game, 227, 245 MLB All-Star Series, 237 MLB International (MLBI), 236, 237 MLBI “Envoy” Program, 236 MLBI “Pitch, Hit and Run” Program, 236 MLBI “PlayBall” Program, 236 MLB Players’ Association (MLBPA), 246 MLB Players Union, 246, 248 MLB World Draft, 242, 248 MLB World Series, 9, 128, 130, 131, 134–6, 193, 231, 245 MLB.com, 237, 243 MLB.TV, 237 Major League Soccer (MLS), 138, 194 Maltin Polar, 237 Manchester City Football Club, 193 Manchester United Football Club, 37, 39, 168, 177, 178, 183, 192, 193, 247, 262, 268–70 Manchester United Television (MUTV), 268 284 Index Manitoba Telecom Inc., 204, 205 Mäori culture, 67–80 haka, 67–80 intellectual property rights, 8, 67, 69, 70, 77, 78 moko, 74 Maple Leaf Sports and Entertainment, 205, 207 Mapquest, 197 Maracana Stadium, 42 marginalization, 111, 112 Marketing AG, 54 Marlboro, 264 Mars, 52 masculinity, 127–9, 131–4, 136 “hard body” masculinity, 135, 138 hegemonic masculinity, 134 hyper-masculinity, 132 “soft body” masculinity, 138 MasterCard, 52, 53, 131, 236 Matsui, Hideki, 244, 245 Matsushita, 147 Mattel, 20 Matthews, Sir Stanley, 42 Maytag, 123 MBC, 237 MBNA, 237 MBNA America, 123 McCormack, Mark, 36, 47 see also International Management Group (IMG) McCourt Company, 191 McDonaldization, 36 McDonald’s, 4, 18, 20, 38, 52, 53, 73, 109, 112, 120, 121, 123, 147, 148, 256, 259, 260 McDonald’s Championship, 17 McGrady, Tracy, 37 MCI WorldCom, 208 Medbroadcast Corp., 211 Medbroadcast.com, 209, 211 mediascape, 219 mediatization, 187 Meeuws, Kees, 74 mega-events, 35 Men TV, GP, 215 merchandise, merchandising, 19, 21, 24, 31, 45, 51, 174, 176, 264, 268 MGM Studios, 195 Microsoft Corporation, 20, 143, 170, 181 Microsoft Xbox, 181 Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, 194, 195, 217 militarism, 130, 133 Miller, Marvin, 246 Mills Commission, 231, 232 Mills, A.G., 231 Milutinovic, Bora, 264 Ming, Yao, 16, 263, 264, 268 Mitsubishi, 143 Mitsui, 143 Miyazawa, Kiichi, 235 Mizuno, 237 Molson, 206 Molson Centre, 206, 207 Monopolies and Mergers Commission (UK), 247 Montreal Canadiens, 202, 203, 205–7 Montreal Expos, 241, 242, 248 Montreal Forum, 202 Montreal Maroons, 202 Monty, Jean, 206, 207 More than Money, 90 Moreno, Arturo, 194, 217 Morgan, J P., 232, 233 MotoGP, 259 Motorola, 239, 256, 259 Moyes, David, 266 MRM Inc., 245 MSNBC Canada Corp., 212 MTV, 148 multiculturalism, 102, 114, 188, 202, 219 multinational corporation (MNC), 37, 40, 49, 89, 91, 98, 100, 102, 110, 112, 128, 148, 149, 238, 240, 242, 243, 263 see also transnational corporation Murdoch, Rupert, 55, 68, 73, 130, 191, 238, 239, 247, 267 see also Fox Broadcasting, News Corporation Mutombo, Dikembe, 16 285 Index Mutuals of New York, 229 Mystery, GP, 215 Nally, Patrick, 40–2, 44–6, 49–51, 58, 59, 61 NASCAR, 196 NASCAR.com, 195 NASCO, 20 Nation, The, 137 nation-state, 2, 4, 5, 7, 67, 83, 110, 117, 118, 122, 127, 143, 144, 147, 148, 162, 253–5, 259 National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, 229 National Basketball Association (NBA), 8, 13–30, 111–13, 196, 197, 207, 262–4, 267, 270 NBA 24/7, 18, 20 NBA ’99, 18 NBA Asia, 264 NBA Jam Session, 18, 20 NBA “Mad Skillz” Tour, 18, 20 NBA Properties, 13, 21, 31 NBA Raw, 18, 20 NBA “Showtime” Tour, 18, 20 NBA.com, 195 NBA-2-Ball, 18–20 National Broadcasting Corporation (NBC), 48, 63 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), 122 National Football League (NFL), 14, 74, 130, 137, 193, 194 NFL Player’s Association (NFLPA), 132 NFL Super Bowl, 130, 193 NFL.com, 195 National Hockey League (NHL), 14, 138, 187, 188, 193, 194, 196, 197, 203, 207, 217, 239 NHL All-Star Game, 187 NHL Enterprises Canada LP, 205 NHL Network Inc., The, 205, 206 NHL Stanley Cup Finals, 203 national identity, 10, 26, 29, 30, 35, 67, 73, 109, 113, 121, 129, 147, 148, 158, 202, 253 see also local identity, nationalism national imaginary, 129, 130, 137 National League, 229–31, 233, 234, 238, 246 National People’s Congress, 258 National Post, 209, 210 national protectionism, 235, 237, 247 National Rugby League (NRL), 192, 193 national symbolic, 9, 118, 122 National Welfare Rights and the American Indian Movement, 100 nationalism, 5, 128, 129, 134, 203, 216, 232, 233 corporate nationalism, 1, economic nationalism, 233, 235 see also national identity Nebiolo, Primo, 36, 48 neo-liberalism, 103, 104, 110, 114, 116, 117, 120, 121, 129, 253 neo-liberal citizenship, Net Star/TSN, 195 Netgraphe, 214, 215 Netscape Netscape Communicator, 197, 198 Netscape Navigator, 197, 198 network economy, 270 network society, 255 Network TEN, 209 New Deal, 87 New Era, 236 New Jersey Devils, 247 New Jersey Nets, 247 New Jersey Supreme Court, 86 New Line Cinema, 196, 197 New York Knicks, 191, 192 New York Liberty, 191, 192 New York Mets, 237 New York Mini Marathon, 98 New York Rangers, 191, 192, 203 New York Yankees, 130, 134, 234, 241, 244, 245, 247, 248 New Zealand All Blacks, 8, 67–80 New Zealand First, 77 New Zealand Native Football Representatives, 72 New Zealand Rugby Football Union (NZRFU), 37, 68, 70, 72–4, 76–8, 80 286 Index Newcastle Brown Ale, 172, 178 Newcastle United Football Club, 172, 178 News Corporation, 55, 74, 143, 188–98, 209–12, 217, 238, 240, 256, 259, 266, 267 News Limited, 68, 69 see also Fox Broadcasting, Murdoch, Rupert Nextel, 131 Ngai Tahu, 73 Ngäti Toa, 71 Nickelodeon, 17, 20 Nicklaus, Jack, 36 Nike, 3, 4, 18, 20, 55, 74, 84, 85, 110–12, 121, 131, 148, 174, 175, 179, 236, 256, 257, 259, 262, 263, 268, 269, 271 Nike Air Zoom, 20 Nike “Everyday Athletes” campaign, 110 Nike “PLAY” campaign, 85 Nikko Cordial, 237 Nintendo Corp., 168, 169, 171, 172, 179–81, 227, 235, 236, 247 Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), 169 Nintendo GameBoy, 169 Nintendo GameCube, 181 Nintendo N64, 169, 172 Nintendo of America, 235 Nintendo Super NES, 169 Nippon Ham Fighters, 227 Nippon Hoso Kyokai (NHK), 227 Nissan, 236 Nokia, 259 Nomo, Hideo, 245 Nomura, Don, 227, 245 non-government organization (NGO), 83 see also international non-government organization (INGO) non-profit organizations, 85, 100 Nonprofit Times, 90 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 3, 256 Northwest Tel Inc., 204, 205 Nottingham Forest Football Club, 177, 178 Nurun Inc., 215 O Globo, 57 O2 (mmO2), 39, 181, 182 Oakland Athletics, 237 Observer, The, 13 Official Sports, 123 offshore financial centre (OFC), 59, 60, 63 Olivetti, 52 Olympic Games, 7, 35, 37, 41, 45, 47, 55 Atlanta 1996, 98, 112 Barcelona 1992, 21, 31 Beijing 2008, 259, 271 Berlin 1936, 38 Los Angeles 1984, 36, 98 Melbourne 1956, 41 Moscow 1980, 36 Munich 1972, 40 Nagano 1998, 55 Salt Lake City 2002, 61, 130 Seoul 1988, 40 Sydney 2000, 264 Olympic Women Exhibition, 98 O’Malley, Walter, 238 One One, 178 Opel, 52, 53 organizational knowledge, organizational learning, 150–4, 161 Orientalism, 257 Originals, The, 72 Oriole Park at Camden Yards, 248 Orix Blue Wave, 242 other, otherness, 111 Ottawa Citizen, 209 Ottawa Senators, 203, 205 Outdoor Life Network, 212 Paama-Pengelly, Julie, 78, 79 Packard Bell, 172, 178 Page, Arthur W., 87 Pakeha, 69, 72, 79 Palmer, Arnold, 36 Panasonic, 38, 248 Parker, Tony, 16 patriotism, 129, 130, 132, 133, 136, 138, 235 PAX Television, 122, 123 287 Index Paxson Communications Corp., 122 Payton, Gary, 18 Peace of Westphalia, Pearl Harbor, 127 Pebble Beach Golf Club, 235 Peladeau, Pierre, 214 Pentech, 20 Pepsi-Cola, 3, 131, 147, 237 Peters, Ron, 77 Peters, Winston, 77 Philadelphia Phillies, 234, 235 Philip Morris Inc., 264 Philips, 3, 52, 53 Philips Arena, 197, 198 Pingan, Shenzhen, 266 Pinnacle Insurance, 178 Player, Gary, 36 Polar, 237 political economy, 17, 30, 35, 38, 39, 44, 47, 59, 136, 143, 162 politics of identity, 8, 67, 68 see also identity Post Cereals, 131 post-Fordism, 256 see also Fordism post-industrial economy, 241 post-industrialism, 228, 256 see also industrialism postmodernism, 162 post-national market, 256 post-nationalism, 2, 9, 117, 256 see also national identity, nationalism Pound, Richard (“Dick”), 58, 61 Premier Communications Ltd, 212 President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, 123 Prime TV, 209, 210 Princeton University, 86 privatization, 117, 135 Procter & Gamble, 118, 147, 256 Professional Golfers Association (PGA), 138, 194 professionalization, 42, 228 Puerto Rico Tourism Company, 242 Puma, 41 Qantas, 237 Quebecor Inc., 204, 214, 215 Quebecor Media Inc., 214–16 Quebecor Printing Holding Company, 215 Quebecor World European Holding SA, 215 Quebecor World Inc (Canada), 214, 215 R.J Reynolds, 52 Radio Shack, 131, 237 Radio-Canada, 202, 203 RAI TV (Italy), 52 Rainbow Media, 191–3 Rawlings, 237 RC Deportivo de La Coruna (Football Club), 180 Reach Toothbrush, 123 Reagan, Ronald, 138 Reaganism, 3, 9, 103, 109, 117, 120, 255 Real Madrid (Football Club), 37 Real Networks Inc., 237 Reebok, 55, 84, 85, 174, 268 Reich, Robert, 244 Reseau des Sports (RDS), 203, 205–7 Riggs, Bobby, 110 Rockefeller Center, 235 Rockefeller Foundation, 90 Rockefeller Foundation Course in Practical Philanthropy, 90 Rockefeller, John D., 233 Rodriguez, Alex, 239 Rogers Communications Inc., 192, 204, 211–16 Rogers AT&T Wireless, 211 Rogers Broadcasting Ltd, 212 Rogers Cable Inc., 212 Rogers Cable TV Ltd, 212 Rogers Cantel Inc., 211 Rogers Cantel Mobile Communications Inc., 211 Rogers iMedia, 212 Rogers Media Inc., 212 288 Index Rogers Publishing Ltd, 212, 213 Rogers Sport Net, 192 Rogers Sports Group Inc., 212 Rogers SportsNet Inc., 212, 213 Rogers Telecommunications Inc., 212 Rogers Wireless, 212 Rogers Wireless Communications Inc., 212 Rogers, Ted, 211, 212, 214 Rogge, Jacques, 61, 62 Rossmoor Industries, 20 Rous, Sir Stanley, 39, 41, 43, 49 RPM.com, 195 Rugby World Cup, 68, 74, 157 Rugby World, 197 Rutherford, David, 78 SBC Park, 228, 244, 248 Saatchi & Saatchi, 74, 153 Safeco Field, 227, 236 Sagit, 52 Sakazaki, Jack, 227 Samaranch, Juan Antonio, 36, 50 Samsung, 38 Samuelson, Joan Benoit, 98 San Diego Spirit, 120 San Francisco Giants, 228 Sato Pharmaceutical, 237 Scheffer, Tom, 239 Schmitt, Pal, 61 Schrempf, Detlef, 16 Schwab, Charles, 232 Sears, 109 Seattle Mariners, 227, 235–7, 239, 242, 247 Seattle Supersonics, 18 SEGA Enterprises, 9, 20, 167–72, 178–82 SEGA Dreamcast, 167–71, 179, 180 SEGA Europe, 167, 168, 171, 172, 179–81, 183 SEGA MegaDrive (SEGA Genesis), 170 SEGA Saturn, 169, 170 Seiko, 45, 51, 52 Select Sport, 123 Self, 119 Selig, Bud, 134, 227, 228, 243, 244 Sema, 38 Seoul Olympic Games Organizing Committee, 51 September 11, 127–37 Shanghai Basketball Association, 269 Shanghai Football Stadium, 268 Shanghai Sharks, 264, 269 Shannon, James, 87, 89 Sharp, 39, 177, 178 Sherman Anti Trust Act, 233–5 Shopping Channel, The, 212, 213 simulacra, 9, 156, 160, 161 Six Nations Rugby Championship, 159 Sky BSkyB, 17, 21, 148, 192, 193, 247 JskyB, 239 Sky News, 17, 20 Sky Sports, 20 Sky Sportscentre, 17 Sky Television, 20, 24, 55 Slam, 20 Sloan, Alfred P., 87 Smith, Craig, 89 Smith, Paul, 17 SMPI, 40, 63 Snickers, 52, 53 Soccernet.com, 195 social democracy, 87 social movements, 83, 84 social welfare programs, 87 socialism, 261, 262, 268, 270 Solomon, Maui, 78, 79 Sony, 3, 20, 55, 147, 167–72, 179–81, 254 Sony PlayStation, 167–70, 172 Sony PlayStation 2, 168, 169, 172, 180, 181 Sorenstam, Annika, 111 Soriano, Alfonso, 245 Southam News, 204 sovereign state, Spalding, 20 Spalding and Bros., 231 Spalding, Albert Goodwill, 231–4, 246 spectacle, 7, 30 SPEED Channel, 192 289 Index Spitz, Mark, 40 sponsorship, 37–40, 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 51, 54, 57, 58, 158, 159, 167, 172, 176, 177, 179, 182, 236, 264 Sport Billy Productions, 52, 53 sportingscape, 253, 257, 258, 262, 266, 269, 271 Sports Council, The, 50 Sports Illustrated, 38, 128, 197–9 Sports Illustrated for Women, 123 sports-media complex, 266 Sprite, 18, 20 St James’s Gate Brewery, 149 St Louis Cardinals, 234 stakeholder society, 103 Standard Oil, 232, 233, 246 Standard Oil of New Jersey, 87 Stankovic, Boris, 22 Staples Center, 191, 192 Star TV, 148, 192, 193, 239, 259 see also ESPN Star Sports Starline Novelties, 20 Start cereal, 19, 20 Starter, 20 state-owned enterprise (SOE), 261 Steinlager, 37, 73 stereotypes, 76, 77 Stern, David, 13, 21, 22, 30 Stojakovic, Peja, 16 strategic community relations, 90, 97, 102, 105 see also global corporate strategic philanthropy and community relations programs (GSCR) strategic philanthropy, 90 see also global corporate strategic philanthropy and community relations programs (GSCR) StudioPost Film Labs, 209 Stypen, 20 Subaru, 178 subcultures, 13 subjectivities, 117 Sun Media, 214 Sun, The, 18, 20 Sunderland Football Club, 193 Suntory, 237 Super Bowl, 130, 193 Super League, 193 Suzuki, Ichiro, 227, 236, 237, 242 Swiss Association of Sport, 57 Swiss Timing-Longines, 43, 45, 57 Switzer, Katherine, 98 Swoopes, Sheryl, 111 symbolic analytical work, 243 Sympatico Inc., 205, 207 Sympatico.ca, 205 Sympatico-Lycos, 207 see also Lycos synergy, 8, 14, 19, 21, 30, 76, 188, 189, 198, 199, 202, 206, 213, 217, 218 Taliban, 128, 138 Task Force on Private Sector Initiatives, 87 Taylor Report, 173 TCI, 239 Te Arawa tribe, 74 Te Rangikoaea, 71 Te Rauparaha, 71–3 Te Wharerangi, 71 Team Football Marketing AG, 54 Tech TV, 212 Telcel, 237 Telecome Americas, 208 Teleglobe Inc., 213 Telegraph, The, 20 Tele-Inter Rives Itee, 215 Telemundi, 51 Teleonce, 237 Telepiu, 189, 194 Telesat Canada, 205 Televen, 237 Televisa, 237 Television Event and Media Marketing (TEAM) AG, 54, 63 Television One, 78, 79 Terrorism, 128, 133 Texas Air National Guard, 139 Texas Rangers, 136, 239 Thatcherism, 3, 103, 255 Thayer, Sir Ernest L., 234 The Event Agency, 54 290 Index THE FAN 590 Radio, Toronto, 213 The Olympic Program (TOP), 40, 45, 51, 63 The Sports Network Inc (TSN), 205–7 Third Way, 103 Thirty Years War, Thomson Group, The, 205 Time, 51, 198 Time Inc., 196–9 Times, The, 18, 20 Time Warner, 113, 188, 196–9, 217, 239 Time Warner Cable, 196, 197 see also AOL Time Warner, Time Inc Title IX, 98, 110 Tognoni, Guido, 43, 63 Tokyo Dome, 227, 237, 244 Toolsen, George, 234 Toronto Blue Jays, 212, 213, 220 Toronto Maple Leafs, 203, 205, 207, 220 Toronto Phantoms Football Club, 213 Toronto Raptors, 205, 207, 220 Torstar, 204 Toshiba, 53 Total Sport, 18, 20 Tottenham Hotspur Football Club, 178 Toyota, 3, 110 transnational advertising, 67, 70, 80 transnational brand, 143 see also brands, branding transnational capitalism, 85, 121, 128, 133, 137, 256 transnational corporate capitalism, 109, 122, 253, 254, 257–9, 262, 266, 270 see also capitalism transnational corporation (TNC), 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 15–17, 29, 30, 68, 80, 84, 104, 112, 114, 116, 117, 122, 130, 131, 133, 135, 137, 143–9, 151, 153, 161, 162, 190, 199, 253–63, 265–7, 269–71 see also multinational corporation (MNC) transnational marketing, 157 transnational marketplace, 127, 129, 133 see also global marketplace transnationalism, 2, 4, 8, 76, 83, 85, 90, 102, 110, 137, 149, 150, 151, 155 Travel Channel, 112 tribalism, 160 Trost, Lonn, 244 Troy, Katherine, 93 Turner Broadcasting, 196–8 Turner Broadcasting Systems (TBS), 198 TBS Superstation, 197 Turner Field, 197, 198 Turner Network Television (TNT), 113, 197 Turner Sports, 122, 195 Turner Sports Network (TSN), 195 TV Guide, 192 TVA Group Inc., 214, 215 TVA Publishing Inc., 215 Twentieth Century Fox, 20, 192 Twentieth Century Fox TV, 192 see also Fox Broadcasting, News Corporation UC Sampdoria (Football Club), 180 Umbro, 174 Union Association, The, 230 Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), 51, 54, 56 UEFA Champions League, 35, 36, 54, 63, 178, 179, 181 UEFA Cup, 181 Union Pacific Railroad, 233 United Nations, 100 United Nations “International Freedom from Hunger” campaign, 100 United Nations “Walk for Development”, 100 United States Department of Health and Human Services, 119 United States Department of Health and Human Services “Girl Power!” campaign, 110, 119, 123 United States Congress, 234, 235 United States National Labor Relations Act, 1935 (Wagner Act), 246 United States Pentagon, 127, 128 291 Index United States Supreme Court, 233–5, 246 United States Youth Soccer Association, 123 United Steelworkers of America, 246 Upper Deck, 20 Upshaw, Gene, 132 US Steel, 232 USS Abraham Lincoln, 138 Vanderbilt, William, 233 Vanity Fair, 119 vertical integration, 144, 162, 189–91, 193, 194, 198, 199, 204, 210, 213, 214, 216 see also horizontal integration Viacom, 188 Videotron Group Ltd, 214–16 Videotron Cable Network, 213, 215 Videotron Itee, 215 Videotron (Regional) Ltd, 215 Videotron Telecom, 214 Videotron Telecom Itee, 215 Vini Italia, 52 Visa, 38 Vivendi Universal, 188, 189, 193, 194, 199 Vodafone, 39 Vogue, 119 Volkswagen, 254 volunteerism, 103 Wang, Zhizhi, 263 Warner Brothers, 196–8 Warner Music, 196, 197 see also AOL Time Warner, Time Warner Washington Senators, 246 Weber, Jean Marie, 53, 54 Welsh Rugby Union (WRU), 49 Welts, Rick, 13, 21, 31 West Ham United Football Club, 178 West Nally Company, 40, 51 West, Peter, 40 Western International Communications Ltd, 210 Westernization, 270 Wheatley, John, 50 Will, David, 56, 63 Williams Electronic, 20 Willing, Klaus, 43 Wilson, 237 Wimbledon Football Club, 178 Wincraft, 20 Winterbottom, Sir Walter, 43, 63 Witness Program, 85 WNBA “Be Active” campaign, 110 Women’s Community Cancer Project, 100 Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA), 109, 111, 113, 191 Women’s Tennis Association (WTA), 111 Women’s United Soccer Association (WUSA), 9, 109–23 WUSA “Kick Ash” campaign, 119 World Championship Wrestling (WCW), 198 World Rugby Corporation (WRC), 68 World Series, see Major League Baseball World Series World Soccer, 197 World Taekwondo Federation, 62 World Trade Center, 127, 128, 134, 135, 138 World Trade Organization (WTO), 3, 83, 220, 256, 270 WTSN, 205 Xerox, 38, 259 see also Fuji Xerox Xin, Lancheng, 264 Xtreme Sports Channel, 209, 210 XXL Basketball, 18, 20 Yahoo!, 253 Yamauchi, Hiroshi, 235, 236, 247 Yankee Stadium, 135, 136 YankeeNets LLC, 247 Yao, Ming, 16, 263, 264, 268 YES Network, 247 Yoshii, Masato, 245 Zhao, Ziyang, 258 Zidane, Zinedine, 37 292 ... Successful Sports Sponsorships: Lessons from Football, London: The International Forum on Sponsorship New Sponsor: mmo2 Anyone? (20 02) Retrieved June 2, 20 02 from: www.arsenalworld.net/news/ 020 2/06 020 2b.htm... 1999) 179 Sport and Corporate Nationalisms The SEGA-Arsenal Partnership SEGA and Arsenal announced a shirt sponsorship agreement on April 22 , 1999 For the 1999? ?20 00 season, Arsenal’s red and white... UK Slot, Marketing Week, January 22 , p 21 Kleinman, M (20 02) , SEGA Downsizes Marketing as Top Euro Post is Axed, Marketing, January 24 , p Kollewe, J (20 02) , MM 02 will Replace SEGA as Arsenal’s