Luận văn thạc sĩ VNU ULIS nghiên cứu thăm dò về chiến lược học từ vựng về chiến lược học từ vựng của sinh viên năm thứ nhất không chuyên tiếng anh trường đại học tân trào

Rationale of the study

Learning a second or foreign language (L2/FL) is arguably one of the most cognitively challenging undertakings most people will go through in a lifetime, and many argue that learning the vocabulary of an L2 is perhaps the most challenging aspect of becoming proficient in the target language (Meara, 1995; Milton, 2009;

Nation, 2001; Schmitt, 2000) Some characteristics that distinguish vocabulary learning from other language skills include the fact that - vocabulary learning is incremental, potentially limitless, and heavily constrained by the learner‟s experience (Swain & Carroll, 1987, p.139) One area of L2 vocabulary acquisition research that has been gaining attention in recent years to help explain the difficulties some L2 learners encounter when learning vocabulary is the focus on learning strategies- vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) in particular Scholars‟ interest in L2 VLS, Schmit (2000) argues, stems from a movement to get away from a predominant teacher-oriented pedagogical philosophy to a more learner-centered ideology that includes an interest in how learners themselves can manage their own language learning Schmitt believes that it may be easier to apply learning strategies to vocabulary learning due to the relatively discrete nature of vocabulary learning as compared to more integrated language skills such as reading, writing, speaking, listening, and grammar

Acquiring a second language involves different areas such as motivation, learners‟ needs, learning environment, learning strategies and language awareness It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore second language learning strategies In any event, learning strategies are defined by Chamot and Kupper (1989) as

“techniques which students use to comprehend, store, and remember information and skills” (p.9)

Vocabulary strategies are one part of language learning strategies which in turn are part of general learning strategies (Nation, 2001) Language learning strategies encourage greater overall self-direction for learners Self-directed learners are independent learners who are capable of assuming responsibility for their own learning and gradually gaining confidence, involvement and proficiency (Oxford,

1990) So is the case with vocabulary learning strategies Thus, students need training in vocabulary strategies they need most Research has shown that many learners do use more strategies to learn vocabulary especially when compared to such integrated tasks such as listening and speaking However, they are mostly inclined to basic vocabulary learning strategies (Schmitt, 1997) This in turn makes strategy instruction an essential part of any foreign or second language program

Learning strategies are the tools that learners use for active, self-directed language learning, and research shows that the conscious, orchestrated and tailored use of such strategies is strongly associated with language achievement and proficiency (O‟Malley & Chamot, 1990) Research on L2 learning strategies and vocabulary acquisition over the past four decades has greatly advanced our knowledge and understanding of L2 vocabulary acquisition However, most of the L2 VLS studies conducted to date have focused on specific learning strategies under experimental conditions such as the keyword method, dictionary use and inferencing

As a result, there is lack of research on learner-selected VLS that provides deep understanding and reasonable explanation of vocabulary learning process This study will help fill this gap by focusing on this area In addition, little research has been done on the nature of VLS FL students resort to at different stages of language development and the effectiveness of these types of strategies have on improving vocabulary and their relationship to language proficiency

I believe that it is necessary to inquire into current situation of students‟ use of vocabulary learning strategies in this college Therefore, the researcher‟s ambition in this paper is to gain an insightful understanding of the current vocabulary learning situation among the first year non-English major students.

Aims of the study

The aims of the study are to get closer to a comprehensive understanding of vocabulary of freshmen at Tân Trào University and to provide some implications for the learning and teaching of English as a foreign language.

Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study are to explore (1) the most dominant self-selected vocabulary learning strategies by first year non-English major students at Tân Trào University, (2) reasons for their preferences and (3) the effectiveness of those strategies on their vocabulary learning which is self-evaluated by the students

In order to establish a theoretical framework for the investigation in thesis, the literature on language learning strategies, vocabulary, and related issues is reviewed.

Research questions

The study will be conducted to answer the following questions:

1 What are the most commonly-used vocabulary learning strategies by first year non-English major students at Tân Trào University?

2 Why do they use those preferred strategies?

3 How do they self-evaluate the effectiveness of those strategies to their vocabulary learning?

Scope of the study

The study limited itself to the investigation of commonly-used vocabulary strategies are employed by first year non-English students at Tân Trào University It also explores factors that shape their choice of strategies and the usefulness of those self-selected strategies to their vocabulary learning.

Method of the study

This is a study which used a mixed-method approach including questionnaire and interview After the data are analyzed and discussed, some conclusions will be drawn and some suggestions will be raised in the thesis.

Design of the study

The thesis is divided into four chapters:

Chapter 1 includes the rationale, the objective, the research questions, the scope, the method and the design of the study

Chapter 2 covers some information about history of research on learning strategies, some basic concepts related to history of research on learning strategies and vocabulary learning In addition, learning strategies and learning strategy classification are reviewed to set up the theoretical framework for the investigation in the next chapter

In Chapter 3, the study is presented It includes the context of the study, the research questions, the research method and the participants

Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study discusses commonly-used vocabulary learning strategies by first year non-English major students at Tân Trào University, the reasons for their choice and students‟ evaluation of the effectiveness of those strategies on their vocabulary learning

In the last chapter - chapter 5, some major findings are presented and conclusions are withdrawn

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Introduction

In this chapter, a brief review of learning strategy research is given; some basic concepts related to history of research on learning strategies and vocabulary learning are presented In addition, learning strategies and learning strategy classification are reviewed to set up the theoretical framework for the investigation in the next chapter.

An overview of learning strategies research

Research on learning strategies has been inspired by two interwoven principles: cognitive psychology and second language acquisition O‟ Malley and Chamot (1990) provide a good overview on this issues

Firstly, in the field of cognitive psychology and second language acquisition is best understood as a complex cognitive skill and research were experimental and oriented toward training learners to acquire strategies According to Anderson

(1985), two kinds of knowledge are involved in the acquisition skills: declarative knowledge and procedure knowledge The former is statistic factual knowledge, or what learners know about; the latter is learners‟ ability to understand and generate language and apply knowledge of rules to solve a problem without conscious application, known as dynamic information These two kinds of knowledge are thought to be at different stages or a sequence of skill learning: cognitive, associative, and autonomous stages At the cognitive stage, the very beginning learner may try to obtain typical declarative knowledge such as vocabulary and the rules of grammar

Thus, learner may gain knowledge about language itself rather than try to use it actively for purpose such as commutative meaning and errors during performance are inevitable The next stage is called the associative stage where learners start to reduce errors in declarative knowledge and to synthesize chunks of elements of the language skill without conscious application of the rules and many errors of the first stage may disappear At the last stage, the autonomous one, learners can perform their language skills without conscious application of the rules and many errors of the second stage may disappear Note that these stages are not distinct or mutually exclusive because the two types of knowledge are not restricted to a certain stage but used at different stages It is reasonable not to regard them as distinct but as recruiting processes

In the case of this study about vocabulary learning strategies, the declarative knowledge is the information about learning strategies, and procedural knowledge is the automatic use and application of language knowledge In the cognitive stage, learners may know that these are such things as learning strategies or be aware that they are using them in different tasks The second stage is referred to as the associative stage, a transitional period when the learners start to use language learning automatically without conscious application In the last stage, the autonomous stage, learners may use and apply strategies automatically

Secondly, in the field of second language acquisition (SLA), research on learning strategies was conducted independently of cognitive psychologist and the methodologies in the studies were also different Early attempts in SLA were made by Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) to find out what „a good learner does‟ and called these „strategies‟ According to O‟ Malley and Chamot (1990), it is difficult to separate “which strategies are fundamental for learning, and which one might be most useful to other learners, and which should be combined with others to maximum learning effectiveness” Therefore, they argue, it is necessary to clarify the role of strategic processing in SLA from both an empirical and theoretical standpoint (O‟ Malley & Charmot (1990:12) Their suggestion is useful and encouraging me to do this research.

Language learning strategies (LLS)

According to Brown (2001) “strategies are those specific „attacks‟ that we make on a given problem They are moment-by-moment techniques that we employ to solve problems posed by second language input and output” (p114) Cohen (2000) stated that the term “strategies” has, in fact, been used to refer both to general approaches and to specific actions or techniques used to learn a second language”

There is no consensus on the definition of language leaning strategies due to different interpretations of “strategy” and “learning” Different studies have given different definitions of language learning strategies

Stern (1983) defined strategies as “best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learners, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior”

(cited in Ellis 1999, p.531) Weinstein and Mayer (1986) stated that learning strategies have learning facilitation as goal and are intentional on the part of learner

The goal of strategy use is to affect „the learner‟s motivational and affective state, or the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organizes, or integrates new knowledge (cited in O‟Malley and Chamot 1990, p43) Tarone (1983) defined learning strategies as “an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language - to incorporate these into one‟s interlanguage competence” (p.67) Chamot (1987) stated that “learning strategies are techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information” (pp.71-84) Rubin (1987) stated that “learning strategies are strategies that contribute to the development of language system that learner constructs and affect learning directly” (p.22) Oxford

(1992) defined learning strategies as “strategic actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills” These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language Strategies are tools for self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability Ellis (1999) stated that learning strategies are the particular approaches or techniques that learners employ to try to learn an L2 They can be behavioral (for example, repeating new words aloud to help you remember them) or they can be mental (for example, using the linguistic or situational contexts to infer the meaning of a new word” (p.76) Cohen (1998) stated that “learning strategies are learning processes which are consciously selected by the learner The words „consciously selected‟ are important because they demonstrate the special character of strategy” (Ellis, 1999: 531) Wenden (1998) defined learning strategies as “mental steps or operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate their efforts to do so” (p.18)

From the definitions above, we can see there are some differences in the way learning strategies are defined regarding the following aspects Firstly, Oxford (1992) viewed learning strategies as only behavioral, while in Weinstein and Mayer (1986) and Ellis‟s (1997) view, they are both mental and behavioral Secondly, Chamot

(1987) stated that learning strategies are “deliberate actions” and Cohen (1998) thought of learning strategies as “conscious” but other researchers avoided addressing it Thirdly, Stern (1983) believed that learning strategies can only refer to

“approach” and “technique” is more concrete, however, other researchers use the term strategies to refer to the kind of behavior that Stern (1983) called techniques

Finally, Rubin (1987) suggested that language learning strategies have direct effect on language development while other researchers looked on it as more indirect

Obviously, there is not yet a comprehensive definition of learning strategies and the terminology, in fact, is not uniform, which are “learner strategies” (Wenden and Rubin, 1987), “learning strategies” (O‟Malley & Chamot, 1990), and “language learning strategies” (Oxford, 1990a, 1996) Different perspectives on defining language learning strategies, which such as are cognitive, social, or pragmatic, show the complexity of this field This is, probably, the reason for researchers to work out taxonomy instead of defining them and there are a number of basic characteristics in the generally accepted view of LLS Oxford (1990:9) offers a more comprehensive list of the features of language learning strategies as the following:

 Contribute to the main goal, communicative competence

 Allow learners to become more self-directed

 Expand the role of teachers

 Are specific actions taken by learners, not just the cognitive

 Support learning both directly and indirectly

 Are influenced by a variety of factors

1.3.1.3 Classification of language learning strategies

A number of researchers attempted to develop a classification scheme of language learning strategies In the literature, however, like the definition of learning strategies, the research which has been done on this field has not reached a consensus agreement on ways to classify learning strategies by different scholars

Cohen (2000) suggested that language learning strategies include strategies for identifying the material that need to be learned, distinguishing it from other material if needed to be, grouping it for easier learning (e.g grouping vocabulary category into nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), having repeated contact with the material (e.g through classroom tasks or the completion of homework assignments), and formally committing the material to memory when it does not seem to acquired naturally (whether through rote memory techniques such as repetition, the use of mnemonics, or some other memory techniques)

Among a variety of classification of learning strategies offered by researchers, Oxford‟s (1990) scheme, which sees the aims of language learning strategies as being oriented towards the development of communicative competence, seems to be the most comprehensive detailed system of six strategies, classified as direct and indirect The direct strategies include metacognitive, affective, and social compensation strategies These strategies, as the word “direct” conveys, are directly involved in learning the target language in the sense that they need mental processing of the language In this scheme, memory strategies are defined as those “helping students store and retrieve new information”, cognitive strategies as “enabling learners to understand and produce new language by many different means”, and compensation strategies as “allowing learners to use the language despite their often large gaps in knowledge” (p.37) The indirect strategies, which include metacognitive, affective, and social strategies, support language learning by arranging, evaluating, lowering anxiety, encouraging oneself, cooperating with others, asking questions, and other ways In Oxford‟s (1990) system, metacognitive strategies allow learners to control their own learning through organizing, planning, and evaluating Affective strategies help learners gain control over their emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values, while social strategies lead to increased interaction with the target language (see Appendix 1 for Oxford‟s (1990) taxonomy).

Vocabulary and vocabulary learning strategies

According to Cowie (1999), vocabulary refers to all the words that exist in a particular language or subject Macathy (1990) indicated that the single, biggest component of any language course is vocabulary In fact, knowing a word, it is believed, means knowing its meaning However, knowledge of a word requires more than that Cook (2001:61) states that “a word is more than its meaning” For Cook

(2001), knowing a word may involve four aspects: form of the word (for instance, spelling and pronunciation), grammatical properties (for instance, word combination and appropriateness), and general meaning and specific meaning

Word knowledge is an essential component of communicative competence (Seal, 1991), and it is important for both production and comprehension in a foreign language Richard (1976:83) offered the assumptions concerning knowing a word as follows:

1) Knowing a word means knowing the degree of probability of encountering that word in speech and print For many words, we also know the sort of words most likely to be found associated with the word

2) Knowing a word implies knowing the limitation on the use of the word according to variations of function and situation

3) Knowing a word means knowing the syntactic behavior associated with the word

4) Knowing a word entails the knowledge the underlying form of a word and the derivations that can be made from it

5) Knowing a word entails knowledge of the network of association between that word and other words in the language

6) Knowing a word means knowing the semantic value of a word

7) Knowing a word means many of the different meanings associated with a word

According to Nation (2005), what involves in „knowing‟ a word depends on various aspects which fit into three groups These include the form of a word, knowing the meaning of a word, and knowing how a word is used Knowing the form of a word includes spelling, sounds and word parts Knowing the meaning of a word linking its form and meaning, knowing a concept for a word and what it can refer to, and knowing what other words of related meaning it can be associated with

Knowing how a word used concerns the grammar of the word, including parts of speech and sentence patterns it fits into, collocates of the word, and whether the word is formal or informal, polite or rude, used mainly by children and so on, or has no restrictions on its use

In summary, knowing a word proposed by different scholars mentioned above involves many crucial aspects All of these aspects concerns word form, word meaning and word use Therefore, regarding vocabulary learning, it is certain that learning vocabulary items means learning the form, the meaning and the use of the new words

1.4.2 Factors affecting learners in learning English vocabulary

According to Brustall et al (1975), in language learning as in other form of leaning, “nothing succeeds like success” He pointed out that successful learners developed favorable attitude as the course progressed, thus these attitudes encouraged more successful learning Learners‟ motivation is likely to benefit and determine partly the effectiveness of learners‟ vocabulary learning

It is believed that those factors that affect learners in language learning also have an effect in his vocabulary learning According to Lightbrown and Spada (1999:51-68), these factors includes intelligence, aptitude, personality, motivation and attitudes, learner preference, learner beliefs, age of acquisition, and kinds of activities A similar list of factors affecting is suggested by Rubin and Thompson (1994:3-8) It includes, age, aptitude (emotions), personality (extroversion, inhibition, tolerance of ambiguity), learning style (learning by rules of by risks, through eyes or ears), and past experiences The importance of learning strategies to the learning process is emphasized by Nunan (1999:171): “Knowledge of strategies is important, because the greater awareness you have of what you are doing, if you are conscious of the processes underlying the learning that you are involved in, then learning will be more effective” Ellis (1997:76-78) also shares the same idea when he states that studies have shown that successful learners use more strategies than unsuccessful learners and successful learners use different strategies at different stages of their development He emphasizes if crucial learning strategies can be identified, they can be taught to students

Learning strategies are the decisive factors for fruitful vocabulary learning

Many scholars have striven to introduce different vocabulary learning strategies in order to help learners of English improve their different vocabulary learning strategies such as Nation (1982; 1990; 2001), Taylor (1990), Oxford (1990), Rubin and Thomson (1994)

1.4.3.1 Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies

Vocabulary learning strategies are a part of language learning strategies which in turn are a part of general learning strategies (Nation, 2001:217) Therefore, the definition of vocabulary learning strategies stems from that for language learning strategies (Catalán, 2013:155) Cameron (2001:92) defined vocabulary learning strategies as “the actions that learners take to help them understand and remember vocabulary items” Catalán (2003:56) adopts the definition of vocabulary learning strategies from Rubin (1987), Wenden (1987), Oxford (1990); and Schmitt (1997) as the working definition in her study as “knowledge about the mechanisms (processes, strategies) used in order to learn vocabulary as well as steps or actions taken by students (a) to find out the unknown words, (b) to retain them in long-term memory, (c) to recall them at will, and (d) to use them in written or oral mode Similarly, Intaraprasert (2004:9) has defined vocabulary learning strategies as “any sets of techniques or learning behaviors, which language learners reported using in order to discover the meaning of a new word, to retain the knowledge of newly-learned words, and to expand their knowledge of vocabulary”

1.4.3.2 Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies

In order to learn and acquire and enlarge vocabulary size, that is, knowing a large number of lexical items, with their meanings, or how to pronounce and use them correctly, language learners needs to deal with a wide range of vocabulary learning strategies and every learner has his/ her own way for learning their vocabulary Vocabulary will also be very different depending on whether language learners‟ primary goal is to understand the language, either in reading or listening, or to produce it, either in speaking or writing Schmitt (2000:133) states that “active learning management is important Good learners do many things such as a variety of strategies, structure their vocabulary learning, review and practice target words and so on” Beside, Gu and John (1996) indicated that successful strategy learners need strategy for controlling their strategy use This involves choosing the most appropriate strategies from a range of known options and decide how to pursue the strategies and when to switch to another strategy

In classifying learning strategies, scholars have different ways of classifying language learning strategies (Intaraprasert, 2004:10) Taking this into consideration, language researchers have made various attempts to classify vocabulary learning strategies These classification systems give crucial contribution to the knowledge of vocabulary learning strategies Instances of such classifications are the taxonomies proposed by Cohen (1987;1990), Rubin and Johnson (1994), Decarrico (2001) are briefly discussed below

According to Cohen (1987:43;1990:21-37), strategies for dealing with vocabulary items, which have been found to share some common characteristics, were put together and could be grouped under three main categories They include strategies for remembering words, semantic strategies, and vocabulary learning and practicing strategies

Rubin and Thomson (1994:79-82) introduced three main categories of vocabulary learning strategies that have been reported by language learners to be effective These include Direct Approach, Use Mnemonics, and Indirect Approach

They are both concerned with conscious learning processes and unconscious learning processes through both learning words in list, completing various vocabulary exercises, and reading and listening

Decarrico (2001) proposed a list of four vocabulary strategies including Guessing meaning from Context, A Mnemonic Device or the Keyword Method;

Vocabulary Note Books, and Other Learner Strategies She argued that language learners have not been taught the majority of words Therefore, vocabulary learning is more likely to be mainly implicit (incidental) She further suggested that strategies should aid both in discovering the meaning of the new words and in consolidating a word once it has been encountered Thus, language learning should approach independent learning of vocabulary by using a combination of extensive reading and self-study strategies

Summary

In this chapter, some information about history on the issue has been introduced; such concepts as learning strategies and knowledge of learning strategies classification, factors involving in vocabulary acquisition have been presented A theoretical framework has been prepared for the investigation in the next chapter

In summary, the reviewed literature has explored the main decisive factors in language learning in general and vocabulary learning in particular The points considered above are all central to understanding and explaining of what and why learners actually do in the process of learning vocabulary It helps to clarify the notions of learning strategies were born in two fields that have developed it independently: cognitive psychology and second language acquisition The former tried to analyze the strategies that scholars employ and then train novices to use as well The latter referred to the kinds of strategies that are used A number of researchers have attempted to systematize strategies of nonnative speakers, using questionnaires that classify various kinds of strategies into categories It has proved reliable and valid as some studies have shown by collecting data from people such as university students and company employers Though the two studies by Stoffer

(1995) and Schmitt (1997) showed taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies, no study has dealt with students at Tân Trào University.

METHODOLOGY

The context of the study

At Tân Trào University, General English or Basic English is applied to students of all departments General English is taught during the second, the third and the forth term with total of 150 periods with the aims of providing students basic knowledge of English Specifically, the students have 3 periods of English per week

The chosen textbook is Lifelines Pre-intermediate (Hutchinson, 2000) This research focuses on vocabulary learning strategies used during the students‟ English course.

Research questions

As mentioned above, the aims of the study is to seek answers to the following research questions:

1 What are the most commonly-used vocabulary strategies by first year non- English major students at Tân Trào University?

2 Why do they commonly use those strategies?

3 How do they self-evaluate the effectiveness of those strategies to their vocabulary learning?

Research method

This study is an exploratory inquiring, and therefore data were collected by means of interview and questionaire Interviews can provide in-depth explanation within a particular context, while questionnaire paint a broad though possibly superficial picture, it is often a good idea to use both (Drever, 1995:8).

Participants

A total of 219 first year non-English major students at Tân Trào University participated in this study The age of the students, ranged from 18 to 23 The participants had been studying English between 7 and 12 years These students come mostly from many parts of Tuyen Quang province Some of them studied other languages such as French and Russian before entering the college Almost students neither had chance to learn English in language centers nor practiced English with native speakers

In order to collect the data for the study, the questionnaire and the interview were designed to gain information about vocabulary learning strategies used by the students in the the study, their reasons, and their self reports on the effectiveness of those strategies on their vocabulary learning

The questionnaire (see Appendix 3) was designed to investigate the vocabulary learning strategies commonly used by the students participating in this study The questionnaire was based on Schmitt‟s (1997) taxonomy because of its comprehensiveness which is appropriate to the researched population in this study

The questionnaire was in Vietnamese to make sure that all participants could understand and complete all the questions It consisted of two parts The first part introduced the purpose of study and researcher‟s expectation on students‟ honesty of provided information on individual learning experience, and required the participants to provide personal information including age, sex, place of birth, duration of learning English, and extra English learning experience at English centres The second part included 33 in which 32 items pertaining to students‟ approaches to vocabulary learning, which were divided into 5 categories: determination strategies (DET), social strategies (SOC), memory strategies (MEM), cognitive strategies (COG), and metacognitive strategies (MET) Question 36 was an open-ended question to which answer depends on individual students‟ learning experience For more details, a table of vocabulary learning strategies in questionnaire is provided below:

Group of strategies Questions in the questionnaire Number of questions

Table1: Vocabulary learning strategies in the questionnaire

In the first stage, the questionnaire was delivered to the students in their regular classrooms at the beginning of the academic year in August Most of the students took 30 minutes to complete all the questions They were encouraged to give their opinions as honestly as possible, and any copied reply would distort the data of the study The researcher confirmed that the aim of the study was to improve their own language learning and all their personal information was kept secret and only used for the research After all the questionnaires were handed in, the commonly- used vocabulary learning strategies were sorted out This would help to provide information for the second stage of data collection

Interviews were held to explore the commonly-used strategies and reasons for their preference Six students were chosen among 219 students from the 6 classes involved in this study They were selected on the grounds of that they were available and willing to take part in the interviews They were asked to join in separate interviews that allowed all the participants to share their opinions without bias from other participants The same questions (see Appendix 4) were given to all the interviewees The interviews were in two hours and all the respondents were interviewed in Vietnamese to ensure full understanding and clear description Those exchanges were recorded for later data analysis In the interview, these informants were asked to (1) report the most commonly-used strategies in the questionnaire, (2) share the reasons for those preferences, and (2) self-evaluate the effectiveness of those preferred strategies on vocabulary learning

One-to-one interviews to six chosen students were conducted These took place in two hours and were recorded (see Appendix 5) for convenience of latter analysis During the interviews, each respondent was encouraged to answer the given questions relating to learners‟ common-used vocabulary learning strategies, the underlying reasons for those preferred strategies, and the effectiveness of those strategies on vocabulary learning.

Data analysis procedures

The questionnaire data were analyzed by means of descriptive statistics to measure the frequency of each strategy the students reported that they used it This help to identify the strategies that students most frequently used and those they least frequently used

The qualitative data collected through the interviews were also analysed quantitatively to identify the common pattern in the students‟ reasons for using the strategies they claimed to have used in their vocabulary learning However, some meaningful extracts from the students‟ responses were also cited to illustrate the quantitative findings.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Quantitative data

The information gathered through the questionnaire provided quantitative data for the research question 1 which helped to find the most-commonly vocabulary learning strategies The terms „high frequency‟ and „low frequency‟ were used in data analysis procedure The former one refers to „always‟ and „usually‟ and the later one refers to „sometimes‟ and „rarely‟ The questions in the questionnaire were analyzed one by one in their vocabulary learning strategy group by counting its percentage

3.1.1 Students’ self-reported use of Determination strategies (DET)

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 never rarely sometimes ussually always

Figure 1: Students’ use of DET in vocabulary learning

As can be seen from the chart above, among three questions of DET strategies, the third question (using bilingual dictionary strategies) was at the highest frequency of using (39.7% usually and 37,4% always)

On the contrary, the answers to question 2 showed that students rarely used monolingual dictionary to look up for meaning of words (15.2% never and 30.2 % rarely) Guessing from textual context (question1), which was proved to be efficient in many other studies, received little support from the learners More than 70% used this strategies with low frequency In terms of using flashcard (question 4), only 6.4% used it with high frequency and 40% never resorted to this strategy

3.1.2 Students’ self-reported use of social strategies (SOC)

Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 Q12 never rarely sometimes ussually always

Figure 2: Students’ use of SOC in vocabulary learning

Data from the chart indicated that in group of SOC strategies students liked asking teachers for help of translation most (question 5) More than 70% of students admitted that they always and usually asked their teacher to translate new words into Vietnamese and 30 % sometimes do so

Asking teachers for paraphrases or synonyms of new words is also one way to discover the meaning of unknown words (question 6) However, only 16% of the informants enjoyed employing this strategy and most of them (69 %) do not highly value this way

Besides translating a new word into L1 or giving paraphrases and synonyms a new word, teacher may give his support in form of a sentence in which a new word is supplemented (question7) However, 35.3% of the students informed that they sometimes asked their teacher for a sentence including the new word, 30.6% rarely and 20.6% never did it

The informants showed little attention to asking their classmates for meaning (question 8) 3.7% always used this kind of vocabulary learning strategies, 17.4% usually did so and 34.6% sometimes employ it Only 7.8% never did it

In regards to discovering new meaning through group work activities (question 9), the data showed low frequency of students‟ using this strategy Many of the students reported they rarely (53.9%) used this strategy and 15.5% even never did it Only a small number of the informants used this strategy with high frequency (always 0.5% and usually 8%)

Studying and practicing meaning of words in a group (question 10) seemed to be unattractive to the students In fact, more than a half of the informants showed their favor for this strategy

Asking teacher to check their flash cards or word lists for accuracy (question

11) were also less used by the students Less than 10% of the informants used this strategy with high frequency

Seeking opportunities to practice new words such as interacting with native speakers (question 12) is supposed to be a fantastic way to retain vocabulary

However, this strategy seemed to be difficult for the informants to apply 55.7% informed that they never did so and nearly 5% used it with high frequency

3.1.3 Students’ self-reported use of Memory strategies (MEM)

Q13 Q14 Q15 Q16 Q17 Q18 Q19 Q20 Q21 never rarely sometimes ussually always

Figure 3: Students’ use of MEM in vocabulary learning

Connecting the word to be retained with a particular vivid personal experience in order to obtain and understand the underlying concepts is believed to be effective in vocabulary learning (question 13) However, the answer to this question showed that it is not frequent choice of almost students Only 18,7% used it with high frequency and there remains 7.3% never used it

Some types of sense relationship such as coordination, synonym or antonym are applied to deepen understanding of the new words effectively (question 14) The collected information, on the contrary, indicated opposite facts that only 17.8% used it with high frequency and 50.2% rarely and 6.4% never used it

In question 15, the informants were asked whether they group words according to particular topics or word types or not The result revealed that nearly half of the informants (33.5%) used it high frequency and 22.2% rarely and 11% never employed it

Grouping words together within a storyline did not gained support from the students (question 16) About 20% used it with high frequency and 29.5% rarely did this and 20,5% denied using it

Question 17 aims at finding out whether the students use Key word method or not Many of the informants reported that they employ this strategy with low frequency (86.2%) Only 6.4% considered it to be one of their key strategies

Remembering affixes and roots (question 18) and parts of speech (question

19) were also less used by the students Only more than 30% adopted these strategies with high frequency

Paraphrasing the word‟s meaning (question 20) is considered to be a useful strategy to compensate for a limited productive vocabulary However, data show an unexpected result with low frequency of using which accounts for 51.6%

Learning the words of a collocation can help for productive use of a language (question 21) However, more than 60% of the informants sometimes or rarely did so

3.1.4 Students’ self-reported use of Cognitive strategies (COG)

Q22 Q23 Q24 Q25 Q26 Q27 never rarely sometimes ussually always

Figure 4: Students’ use of COG in vocabulary learning

Written repetition (question 22) and verbal repetition (question 24) are common strategies in many parts of the world (Schmitt, 1997) This seemed to be no exception to the informants in case of written repetition The students paid their special attention to this written repetition strategy (question22) with extremely high frequency of using (96.8%), and no one never did so Also, a correlative result to verbal repetition was reported in the collected data 73.5% of the informants always and usually applied this Only 1.8 never did so In the contrary, learners seemed take minimal care with silent study, 60% denied to adopt this

Qualitative data

An interview was followed by the questionnaire in this research The interaction was hoped to provide necessary qualitative data for the second and the third research questions

The researcher made an attempt to investigate the underlying reasons for the students‟ choice secondly, the effectiveness of these strategies on students‟ vocabulary learning by asking questions on informants‟ motives behind their practice of those preferred strategies and their self-assessment the effects of those strategies on their vocabulary learning respectively This effort, it was believed, would provide logical explanations for the selected strategies and impact of this practice on learners‟ vocabulary acquisition

3.2.1 Reflection on the reasons for preferred vocabulary learning strategies

To be asked reasons for their preference, the interview data show that most of the informant seemed to amazingly share the same point of view which restricted to some aspects In particular, their answers were nearly identical in many cases

1 Note taking help to concentrate more on the lessons

2/6 for later revision which dominated by learner‟s retention efforts for words‟ spellings, meanings and pronunciations resulting from teacher‟s requirement

6/6 a frequent strategy when learners were at schooling

2 Asking teacher for L1 translation meet the teacher‟s requirement of translating texts

6/6 a frequent strategy when learners were at schooling

3 Verbal repetition an usual activities in class 5/6 support learners in retaining word‟ pronunciation

5/6 a frequent strategy when learners were at schooling

4 Written repetition help to remember word‟s spelling 5/6 meet the teacher‟s requirement of remembering word‟s spelling

3/6 a frequent strategy when they were at 4/6 schooling

5 Bilingual dictionary look for equivalent meanings in L1 2/6 meet teacher‟s requirement of looking up new words of the subsequent lesson

5/6 meet teacher‟s requirement of translating texts of the following lesson

Table 3: Reasons for preferred vocabulary learning strategies

Being asked if written repetition, bilingual dictionary, note taking, verbal repetition, and asking teacher for L1 translation were informants‟ preferred strategies, all the six informants said “Yes” in their answers to the first question

When being questioned about the reasons why they often used note taking strategy, most of informants reported that “It helps me to concentrate more on the lessons” (Student 5, Student 6), and “ My teacher asks us to remember spellings, pronunciations and meanings of the new words given by my teacher” Consequently, All of the six informants reported they used this strategy for their “later revision”

Specifically, Student 1 gave specific reasons for applying this strategy as follows:

“My teacher asks me to remember spellings and meanings of the given new words I resort to this way to take down all the new words I must do for my latter revision”

In fact, this strategy was reported to help learners have vocabulary items which included their meanings, spellings, and pronunciations which all needed for latter retention efforts and follow content of the lessons closely

In regards to normal use of asking teacher for L1 translation, all of the six informants admitted having frequently been asked to translate texts in their books by their teachers, and consequently in response to that task learners usually resorted to teachers‟ help by asking directly their teachers meanings of unknown words In addition, it seemed that this was the only way that learners thought of when they did those translation tasks For example, Student 2 said that:

During my learning in class, When I saw a new word, I often asked my teacher its equivalent in Vietnamese In addition, my teacher often told us to translate texts in our books and when I saw a new word, I usually asked my teacher for its pronunciation and meaning in Vietnamese

The informants seemed to make an effort in verbal repetition The reasons for this strategy they offered seemed to result from their normal use of this strategy in class To many informants, they realised its benefit in supporting them in memorising word‟s pronunciation Specifically, Students 4 listed several grounds for his frequent practice of this strategy:

My teacher often asked us to read aloud new words on board in class After several repetitions, I could remember spellings of those words I also adopted this strategy to learn new words at home

Concerning their preference for written repetition, they acknowledged that this strategy helped them to retain spellings of new words, and that they made use of both written and verbal repetitions together for self-instruction in many cases rather than used them as separate strategies Student 1 reported that:

My teacher told us to memorise spellings and pronunciations of new words

Therefore, I usually rewrote the given new words many times at home I often combined both written repetition and verbal repetition I realise that it was much more efficient

The reasons the informants gave for bilingual dictionary were “to look for equivalent meanings in Vietnamese” (Student 1, Student 2) , “my teacher asked me to look up new words of the subsequent lesson” (Student 1, Student 2, Student 3, Student 4, Student 5), and “ my teacher asked us to translate texts of the following lesson” (Student 1, Student2 , Student 3, Student 4, Student 6) For example, Student

Bilingual dictionary helped me know equivalents in Vietnamese My teacher usually order us to translate texts in the book To know meanings of new words, I often took advantage of bilingual dictionaries

In response to the Question 7 inquiring into if the informants used to resort to those preferred strategies when they were at schooling, all of interviewees said “Yes,

I usually used these strategies when I was at schooling” in their answers without any hesitance

3.2.2 Learners’ self-evaluation on the effectiveness of the preferred strategies on vocabulary learning

In respect of benefits of those preferred strategies, all of the respondents gave almost the same answers to the last question For example, Student 4 reported that:

I think that these strategies assist me in retaining pronunciations, spellings, and equivalent meanings in Vietnamese of new words I think so

In many cases, the informants showed signs of doubtfulness to long-term effectiveness of these strategies by wording that “I don‟t know why many of the words which I know for sure I have learnt before, however, I can‟t remember them now” (Student 5) and “ Many of words in my books that I find quite familiar but I can‟t recall their meanings” (Student 6).

Discussion

In the previous parts, I presented all the results from the survey questionnaire and interview This section discusses the findings of this investigation in details and analyses the extent to which they support to answer the research questions To be more specific, particular emphasis is given to the discussion of commonly used vocabulary learning strategies by students, the reasons underlying their choice, and the effectiveness of those strategies to their vocabulary learning

3.3.1 The most commonly-used strategies

From questionnaire and interview results, it can be seen that all the vocabulary learning strategies introduced in the questionnaire were employed by non-English major students at Tân Trào University Among the six independent variables under assessment, cognitive strategies received the highest means scores (3.0) and metacognitive strategies received the lowest (2.4) In general, among many other strategies which were included in the survey, there are some more preferred strategies than others to the students Those comprised of determination strategies, social strategies, memory strategies, and cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies

Table 4 showed that the average frequency means of strategy use ranged from 1.8 to 4.2 Students‟ choice seemed to restrict to several strategies To be more specific, these included written repetition (M=4.2), asking for L1 translation (M=3.8), note taking (M=3.6), verbal repetition (M=3.5), and bilingual dictionary (M=3.4) which all attracted the most attention and required time and effort from the students

3.3.2 The reasons for the preferred strategies

Results from the questionnaire and the interview indicated that learners‟ centre of attention lay most at group of cognitive strategies which comprise of verbal and written repetition, taking notes in class, bilingual dictionary, asking teacher for L1 translation The reasons for these strategies were discussed as follows:

First, the students adopted these strategies because the students found out the advantages of these commonly-used strategies in retaining spelling, pronunciation and equivalent meaning of a word after having experienced in classroom activities

Written and verbal repetition strategies were reported to be popular among learners

Regarding verbal repetition, Student 4 said “After several repetitions, I could remember spellings of those Therefore, I adopted this strategy to learn new words at home” In terms of written repetition, similar statements were reported For example “I often combined both written repetition and verbal repetition I realise that it was much more efficient” (Student 1) It indicated that after having learnt this strategy, the learners themselves realised its benefit of this “mechanical way” (Bigg,

1997) in helping them to retain phonological form of a word Research shows that this contributes to the storage and retrieval of language (Rubin, 1997) An interesting explanation was that written repetition helped to reinforce correct forms of words while “the ear does assist the eye in the long-term retention of lexis” (Kelly, 1992)

Empirical research of vocabulary rehearsal (Gary& Gary, 1982; Hill, 1994) has produced relatively convincing results that serve to underscore the usefulness of these strategies and the need to employ various repetition strategies at the early stages of vocabulary learning In the same vein, to explain for the use of bilingual dictionary use, Student 6 stated that “Bilingual dictionary helped me know equivalents in Vietnamese” So was the case of taking notes It was reported to promote learners‟ comprehension and retention and allowed learners “to concentrate more on lessons”

(Student 1) In regards to asking teacher for L1 translation, the results revealed that much of learners‟ attention was paid to vocabulary It seemed that learners actively took parts in this kind of activity when they saw the benefit of this strategy and by wording that “… when I saw a new word, I usually asked my teacher for its pronunciation and meaning in Vietnamese” (Student 2)

Second, the learners seemed to employ these strategies to meet the teacher‟s requirement of the homework assignments and classroom tasks in which learners were asked to remember spelling, sound and meaning of a word For example, in case of verbal repetition, Student 4 stated that: “My teacher often asked us to read aloud new words on board in class” Concerning written repetition, Student 1 reported the same reason: “My teacher told us to memorise spellings and pronunciations of new words” Regarding taking notes, Student 1 said that “My teacher asked me to remember spellings and meanings of the given new words”

Therefore, they “resorted to this way to take down all the new words” for “later revision” In class, learners also were asked to “translate texts in the book” (Student

6) Similarly, the same tasks were reported to give for learners which were “translate texts in the book” (Student 2) or “look up new words of the subsequent lesson”

(Student 6) when learners explained for their frequent use of bilingual dictionary

Accordingly, a bilingual dictionary was used as a handy reference tool to accomplish those tasks Similarly, the task that required learners to “translate texts in the book”

(Student 6) was the reason that was reported to explain why the students asked teacher for L1 translation strategy

Third, the results of the study indicated that the practice of those restricted strategies might be impacted by the Grammar Translation Method applied by their teachers All of the classroom activities were reported to be inclined to the Grammar Translation Method which concentrated on accuracy and bilingual dictionaries became common as reference tools (Kelly, 1969) In the interviews, many interviewees reported that “My teacher asked us to remember spellings, pronunciations and meanings of the new words given by my teacher” (Student 6) or

“My teacher often told us to translate texts in our books” (Student 2), My teacher usually ordered us to translate texts in the book” or “My teacher asked me to look up new words of the subsequent lesson” (Student 3) As Lightbrown and Spada (1999:51-68) point out one of the factors that affects learners in language learning as well as vocabulary learning is kinds of activities learners involved in their learning

Therefore, this method could be the direct reason for the current commonly-used strategies

Forth, all of the respondents reported that learners employed similar strategies in vocabulary learning when they were at their schooling For example, being asked whether they frequently used those preferred strategies, all of the interviewees gave the same answer that was “Yes, I usually used these strategies at my schooling”

Consequently, one plausible explanation for these strategies was learners‟ educational background at school Rubin and Thompson (1994:3-8) also find out the impact of prior schooling experiences in selecting learning strategies

3.3.3 The effectiveness of those commonly-used strategies on vocabulary learning

The results of the interview revealed that most of learners‟ efforts on these restricted strategies and doing translation tasks were reported to be dominant in their learning which were believed to help learners to retain sound, spelling and meaning of a word In other words, they thought that knowledge of a word in a language included spelling, sound and equivalent meaning The data in questionnaire also indicated that students‟ vocabulary learning excluded many other needed aspects of knowing a word which is demonstrated in the literature review (e.g synonym, collocation, association, appropriateness, semantic value) Specifically, learners seemed to neglect many other crucial strategies that helps to gain access to those omitted aspects of knowing a word (e.g learn the words of an idiom together, associate the word with the with its synonyms and antonyms, use English language media) Too much focus on translation may reduce opportunities for other strategies which may help to develop productive competence and it may foster learner‟s dependence on native language Another possible explanation for their preference derived from their part experiences

To some learners, they expressed their doubt about long-term efficiency of the selected strategies In reality, this concern was logical because all their most commonly-used strategies only helped to to find out the unknown words and their vocabulary learning excluded strategies assisting learners in retaining them in long- term memory, recalling them at will, using them in written or oral mode (Schmitt,

Summary of major findings

The study indicates that researched subjects only confines to restricted strategies in their vocabulary learning including verbal and written repetitions, taking notes, asking teacher for L1 translation, and using bilingual dictionary These most frequently-used strategies belong to determination strategies and cognitive strategies

There is a strong influence of homework vocabulary assignments, vocabulary assessment and vocabulary teaching method, which follows the Grammar Translation Method, and past learning experiences on learners‟ choice of vocabulary learning strategies

The study shows that learners realize the benefits of those strategies on retaining sound, spelling and equivalent meanings and help them concentrate on lessons after having experienced those strategies in classroom activities and homework assignments.

Conclusions

In this study, I have investigated the most commonly-used vocabulary learning strategies of the first year non-English major students at Tân Trào University, reasons for their preferences and the effectiveness of those strategies on their vocabulary learning which is self-evaluated by the students

The study points out that learners‟ understanding of what involves in knowing a word is insufficient, which includes phonological and orthographical form and equivalent meaning In particular, these strategies only help learners touch upon surface features of a word such as sound, spelling and equivalent meaning Students‟ commonly-used vocabulary learning strategies do not provide learners with needed knowledge of vocabulary knowledge and skills to succeed in language learning In fact, the selected strategies prevent learners from obtaining many other crucial aspects of knowing a word (e.g collocation, synonym, antonym, appropriateness, association) which are supposed to be necessary to develop linguistic, communicative competence In addition, these preferred strategies promotes learner‟s dependence on his native language and limits opportunities for a learner to experience many other strategies that a good learner need to support him in retaining words in long-term memory, recalling them at will, and as a result promote communicative competence In reality, the study shows that learners do not have many opportunities of experiencing many other strategies in classroom activities that are supposed to be good for a language learner Therefore, vocabulary language teaching should be a colourful picture which consists of many kinds of vocabulary learning strategies that help learners to fully develop learners‟ word knowledge of a language

1 Birkenzol R J.(1999) Effective adult learning Danville, IL: Interstate

2 Brown H.D (2001) Principles of language learning and teaching Longman

3 Biggs, J (1987) Student approaches to learning and studying Melbourne::

Australian Council for Educational Research

4 Brustall, C (1975) Factors affecting foreign language learning: A consideration of some current research findings Language Teaching and Linguistics: Abstract: 8,1

5 Cameron, L (2001) Teaching language to young learners Cambridge:

6 Carter, R (1987) Vocabulary - Applied linguistics perspectives London:

7 Catalán, R M J (2003) Sex differences in L2 vocabulary learning strategies

International Journal of Applied Linguistic, 13 (1): 54-77

8 Chamot, A U (1987) The learning strategies of EFL students In A Wenden and J Rubin ( Eds.) Learner strategies in language learning New

9 Chamot, A U (2005) Language learning strategy instruction: Current issues and research Annual review of applied linguistics,12, 643-679

10 Charmot and Kupper (1989) Learning strategies in foreign language instruction Foreign language annals, 22 (1): 13-22

11 Coady, J and Huckin, T (1997) Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

12 Cohen, A D (1987) The use of verbal and imagery mnemonics in second language vocabulary learning Studies in second language acquisition, 9: 43-62

13 Cohen, A D (1998) Strategies in learning and using a second language

14 Cohen, A D (1990) Language learning: Insights for learners, teachers and researchers New York: Newbury Hourse

15 Cohen, A D (2000) Strategies in learning and and using a second language

Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press

16 Cook, V (1983) Linguistic and second language acquisition London: The

17 Cohen, A D.,Weaver, S & Li, T-Y.(1998) The impact of strategy-based instruction on speaking a foreign language In A.D Cohen, Strategies in using and learning a second language (pp.107-156) London: Longman

18 Cowie, A P (1999) English dictionaries for foreign learners Oxford:

19 Deccarico, J S (2001) Vocabulary learning and teaching In M Celce

Mulcia (Ed.) Teaching English as second or foreign language (3 rd ed.) (pp 285-299) Boston: Heinle & Heinle

20 Drever, E (1995).Using semi-structured interviews in small-scale research: A

Teacher's Guide Edinburgh: Scottish Council for Research in

21 Dornyei, Z (2003) Questionnaire in second language research :

Construction, administration, and processing Mahwah New Jersey

22 Ellis, R (1997) Second language acquisition London: Oxford University

23 Ellis, R (1999) The Study of second language acquisition London: Oxford

24 Foley, J., & Thomson, L.(2003) Language learning: A lifelong process

25 Gary, N., and Gary, J (1982) Packaging comprehension materials: Toward effective language instruction in difficult circumstances System, 10, 61-

26 Gu, Y., & Johnson, R K (1996) Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes Language learning, 46, 643-679

27 Hill, M (1994) A word in your ear: To what extent does hearing a new word help learners to remember it? In N Bird & P Falvey & A.B.M Tsui &

D.M Allison & A McNeill (Eds.), Language and learning (pp 447-

462) Hong Kong: Hong Kong Education Department

28 Hornby, A S., Cowie, A P., & Gimson, A.C.(1984) Oxford advanced dictionary of current English Oxford: Oxford University Express

29 Horst, M., Cobb, T., & Meara, P (1998) Beyond A Clockwork Orange:

Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading Reading in a foreign language, 11(2), 207-223

30 Hutchinson, T (2000) Lifeline intermediate London: Oxford University

31 Intaparasert, C (2004) EST students and vocabulary learning strategies: A preliminary investigation Unpublished research, Surannaree University of Technology, Nakhon, Nachasima, Thailand

32 Jackson, H., and Amvela, E Z (2000) Words, meanings, and vocabulary: An introduction to modern English lexicology London: Cassell

33 Kelly, P (1992) Does the ear assist the eye in the long-term retention of lexis? IRAL, 30, 137-145

34 Kelly, L.G (1969) Centuries of language teaching Rowley, MA: Newbury

35 Laufer, B (1997) The lexical plight in L2 reading: Words you don‟t know, words you think you know and words you can‟t guess In J Coady and

T Huckin (Eds.), Second language acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp 20-34) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

36 Laufer, B & Hulstjin, J (2001) Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: The construct of task-induced involvement Applied linguistics, 22 (1): 1-26

37 Lawson, M J., & Hogben, D (1996) The vocabulary learning strategies foreign language students Language learning, 46 (1) (pp.101-135)

38 Lightbrown and Prada (1999) Focus on form and corrective feedback in communicative language teaching: Effects on Second Language Learning Studies on second language acquisition, 12, 429-448

39 Meara, P (1995) The importance of any early emphasis on L2 vocabulary learning The language teacher, 19: 8-11

40 Milton, J (2009) Measuring second language vocabulary acquisition

41 Nation, I.S.P (1982) Learning vocabulary Wellington: Victoria University of Wellington

42 Nation, I.S.P (1982) “Beginning to learn foreign vocabulary: A review of the research”, RELC Journal, 13: 14-36

43 Nation, I.S.P (1990) Teaching and learning vocabulary New York: Newbury

44 Nation, I.S.P (1997) Vocabulary size, text coverage, and word lists In

Schmitt; McCarthy, Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

45 Nation, I.S.P (2000) „Designing and improving a language course‟ English

46 Nation, I.S.P (2001) Learning vocabulary in another language Cambridge:

47 Nation, P., & Coady, J (1998) Vocabulary and reading In R Carter & M

MacCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary and language teaching (pp 97-110)

48 Nunan, (1999) Second language teaching and learning New York: Heinle &

49 O‟ Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A U (1990) Learning strategies in second language acquisition Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

50 O‟ Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A U (1994) The CALLA handbook,

Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach

London and New York: Longman

51 Oxford, R (1990b) Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know New York: Newbury Hourse

52 Oxford, R L (1992) Research on second language learning strategies:

Linguistics Annual review of applied linguistics: 13, 175-178

53 Oxford, R L (1996) Employing a questionnaire to assess the use of language learning strategies Applied language learning, 7 (1 & 2), 25-45

54 Oxford, R (2003) Toward a more systematic model Pf L2 learner autonomy

In Palfreyman, P., and Smith, R (eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures: Language education perspectives (pp.75-91) London: Plgrave

55 Read, J (2000) Assessing vocabulary Cambridge: Cambridge University

56 Richards, J C (1976) The role of vocabulary teaching TESOL Quarterly,

57 Richards, J C., Plat, J & Platt, H., (1992) Language teaching and applied linguistics (2 nd ed.) Essex: Longman

58 Richards, J C (2000) Series editor‟s preface In N Schmitt, Vocabulary in language teaching (pp xi-xii) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Reading problems, assessment, and teaching strategies Boston: Allyn and Bacon

60 Rubin, J (1975) What „good language learner‟ can teach us TESOL

61 Rubin, J (1987) Learning strategies: Theoretical assumptions, research history and typology In A Wenden & J.Rubin (eds.) Learner’s strategies and language learning (pp 15-29) Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

62 Rubin, J and Thomson, I (1994) How to be a more successful language learner: Toward learner autonomy (2 nd edition) Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers

63 Sanaoui, R (1995) Adult learners‟ approaches to learning in second language Modern language journal, 79, 15-28

64 Seal, B D (1991) Vocabulary learning and teaching In M Celce-Murcia,

(Ed.) Teaching English as second or foreign language (pp 296-311)

65 Schmitt, N (1997) Vocabulary learning strategies In N Schmitt, & M

McCathy (Eds.), Vocabulary: description, acquisition, and pedagogy

(pp 237-257) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

66 Schmitt N (2000) Vocabulary in language teaching Cambridge: Cambridge

67 Spolsky, B (1989) Conditions for second language learning Oxford: Oxford

68 Stern, H H (1975) What can we learn from the good language learner? The

69 Stern, H H (1983.) Fundamental concepts of language teaching Oxford:

70 Sternberg, R J (1987) Most vocabulary is learned from context In M G

McKeown and M E Curtis (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp.89-105) Hillsdale, Newjersy: Erlbaum

71 Stoffer, I (1995) University foreign language students’ choice of vocabulary learning strategies as related to individual different variables

Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Alababama, Alababama

72 Swetnam, D (1998) Writing your dissertation: How to plan, prepare and present your work successfully Oxford: Oxford University Press

73 Swain, M., & Carroll, S (1987) Vocabulary instruction in immersion classes

In B Harpley, P Allen, J Cummins & M Swain (Eds.), The development of bilingual proficiency: Final report (Vol.2 pp 192-222)

Toronto: Modern Language Centre, Ontario Institue for Studies in Education

74 Taylor, (1990) Teaching and learning vocabulary London: Prentice Hall

75 Tarone, E (1983) Some thought on the notion of communicative strategies

In C Faerch and Kasper, G (Eds.) Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp.61-74) London: Longman

76 Thompson, G (1987) Using bilingual dictionaries ELT Journal, 41, 282-

77 Weinert, R (1995) The role of formulaic language in Second Language

78 Weinstein, C.E & Mayer, R.E (1986) The teaching of learning strategies In

M Wittrork (Eds.) Handbook of Research on Teaching (pp 315-327)

79 Wenden, A (1987) How to be a successful language learner: Insights and prescriptions from L2 learners (pp.103-118) In A Wenden & J, Rubin (Eds.), New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo, Singapore:

80 Wenden, A & Rubin, J (1987) Learner strategies in language learning New

81 Wharton, G (2000) Language learning strategy use of bilingual foreign language learners in Singapore Language learning, 50 (2), 203-244

Appendix1: Oxford’s (1990) taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies

Class Set of strategies Specific strategies

I Memory strategies a Creating mental linkage

3 Placing new words into a context b Applying images and sounds

4 Representing sounds in memory c Reviewing well Structured review d Employing action

1 Using physical response or sensation

II Cognitive strategies a Practicing 1 Repeating

2 Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems

3 Recognizing and using formulas and patterns

5 Practicing naturalistically b Receiving and sending messages

2 Using resources for receiving and sending messages c Analyzing and reasoning

5 Transferring d Creating structure for input and output

III.Compensation Strategies a Guessing intelligently 1 Using linguistic clues

2 Using other clues b Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing

1 Switching to the mother tongue

4 Avoiding communication partially of totally

6 Adjusting or approximating the message

Group Set of strategies Specific strategies

I.Metacognitive strategies a Centering your learning 1 Overviewing and lining with already known material

3 Delaying speech b Arranging and planning your learning

1 Finding out about language learning

4 Identifying the purpose of language task (purposeful listening / reading/ speaking/ writing)

6 Seeking practice opportunities c Evaluating your learning 1 Self-monitoring

II Affective strategies a Lowering your anxiety

1 Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or mediation

3 Rewarding yourself c Taking your emotional temperature

2 Using checklist 3.Writing a language learning diary

4 Discussing your feelings with someone else

III Social strategies a Asking questions

1 Asking for clarification or verification

2 Asking for correction b Cooperating with others

2 Cooperating with proficient users of the new language c Empathizing with others

2 Becoming aware of others‟ thoughts and feelings

Appendix 2: Schmitt’s vocabulary learning strategies

Strategies for the discovery of a new word‟s meaning

DET Analyze part of speech DET Analyze suffixes and roots DET Check for L1 cognate DET Analyze any available pictures or gestures DET Guess from textual context

DET Bilingual dictionary DET Monolingual dictionary

SOC Ask teacher for a L1 translation SOC Ask teacher for paraphrase or synonym of new word SOC Ask classmate for meaning

SOC Discover new meaning through group work activity Strategies for consolidation a word once it has been encountered

SOC Teacher check students‟ flash cards or word lists for accuracy SOC Interact with native speakers MEM Study word with a pictorial representation of its meaning

MEM Connect word to a personal experience MEM Associate the word with its synonyms and antonyms

MEM Use „scales‟ for gradable adjectives

MEM Group words together to study them MEM Use new words in sentences

MEM Group words together within a storyline

MEM Study the spelling of a word MEM Study the sound of a word MEM Say new words aloud when studying

MEM Underline initial letter of the word

MEM Use key word method

MEM Affixes and roots (remembering) MEM Part of speech (remembering) MEM Paraphrase the word‟s meaning MEM Use cognates in study

MEM Learn the words of an idiom together MEM Use physical action when learning a word MEM Use sematic feature grids

COG Take notes in class COG Use the vocabulary section in your text books COG Listen to tape of word lists

COG Put English labels on physical objects COG Keep a vocabulary notebook

COG Use English-language media COG Testing oneself with word tests COG Use spaced words practice

COG Skip or pass new word

COG Continue to study word over time

BẢNG CÂU HỎI VỀ CHIẾN LƯỢC HỌC TỪ VỰNG Bảng câu hỏi này được thiết kế nhằm điều tra chiến lược học từ vựng của sinh viên không chuyên Anh năm thứ nhất trường Cao đẳng Tuyên Quang Tôi rất mong các em dành chút thời gian trả lời các câu hỏi dưới đây một cách trung thực nhất

Mọi thông tin các em đưa ra đều được giữ bí mật hoàn toàn và chỉ được dùng cho mục đích nghiên cứu Sự giúp đỡ của các em sẽ giúp tôi hoàn thành luận văn thạc sỹ của mình Tôi xin chân thành cảm ơn sự giúp đỡ của các em

Trước khi trả lời các câu hỏi, xin các em vui lòng cung cấp một số thông tin cá nhân bằng cách khoanh tròn những thông tin đúng hoặc trả lời các câu hỏi sau đây:

5 Em học tiếng Anh được bao lâu?

6 Ngoài thời gian học tiếng Anh tại trường Em có từng tham gia học thêm tiếng Anh tại các trung tâm Anh ngữ không?

Sau đây là những chiến lược học từ vựng, tức là cách mà em dùng để học từ mới hoặc ôn lại từ đã học Các em hãy lựa chọn cách học từ vựng mà em đã sử dụng bằng cách khoanh tròn một trong những đáp án cho sẵn sau đây:

STT Chiến lược hoc từ vựng

1 Đoán nghĩa các từ mới dựa vào ngữ cảnh a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

2 Tra từ điển Anh- Anh a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

3 Tra từ điển Anh- Việt a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

4 Ghi từ mới vào các tấm card nhỏ và mang theo để học khi có thời gian a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

5 Nhờ giáo viên dịch sang tiếng Việt a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

6 Nhờ giáo viên diễn giải bằng cách đơn giản hơn hoặc cho biết từ đồng nghĩa của từ mới a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

7 Nhờ giáo viên cho ví dụ một câu trong đó có từ mới a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

8 Nhờ người khác dịch nghĩa của từ mới sang tiếng Việt a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

9 Học từ trong những hoạt động theo nhóm ở trên lớp a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

10 Học và thực hành nghĩa của từ ngoài giờ học trên lớp a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

11 Nhờ giáo viên kiểm tra xem danh mục từ của mình có đúng chính tả và nghĩa hay không a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

12 Tận dụng mọi cơ hội nói chuyện với người nước ngoài a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

13 Gắn liền từ mới với từ đã biết a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

14 Học từ mới bằng cách gắn với từ đồng nghĩa, trái nghĩa của nó a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

15 Phân loại và nhóm từ theo chủ đề hoặc từ loại a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

16 Học từ theo nội dung một câu chuyện a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

17 Dùng phương pháp sử dụng từ khóa a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

18 Ghi nhớ nghĩa các tiền tố và hậu tố a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

19 Ghi nhớ từ loại của từ (danh từ, động từ, trạng từ, v.v) a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

20 Tự mình diễn giải lại từ theo cách đơn giản hơn a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

21 Học từ trong những cụm từ cố định a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

22 Học từ bằng cách đọc to nhiều lần a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

23 Học từ bằng cách đọc thầm a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

24 Học từ bằng cách viết đi viết lại nhiều lần a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

25 Ghi chép tất cả các từ mới xuất hiện trong các giờ học trên lớp a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

26 Dán tên bằng tiếng Anh lên các đồ vật xung quanh a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

27 Học từ bằng cách nói chuyện với các bạn trong lớp a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

28 Học từ mới từ những nguồn khác ngoài giáo trình (nghe nhạc, đọc báo, xem

TV, ) a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

29 Tự kiểm tra trình độ từ vựng của mình bằng cách làm các bài tập liên quan đến từ vựng a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

30 Học từ bằng cách làm bài tập điền từ vào chỗ trống a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

31 Bỏ qua từ mới a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

32 Ngày nào cũng giành thời gian học từ mới a luôn luôn b thường xuyên c thỉnh thoảng d hiếm khi e không bao giờ

33 Các cách khác mà em đã áp dụng:

Câu hỏi 1: Tra từ điển Anh-Viêt, nhờ giáo viên dịch sang tiếng Việt, đọc to nhiều lần, viết đi viết lại nhiều lần, ghi chép tất cả các từ mới xuất hiện trong các giờ học trên lớp có phải là cách mà các em áp dụng nhiều nhất để học từ vựng không?

Câu hỏi 2: Tại sao em sử dụng chiến lược ghi chép tất cả các từ mới xuất hiện trong các giờ học trên lớp?

Câu hỏi 3: Tại sao em sử dụng chiến lược tra từ điển Anh-Viêt?

Câu hỏi 4: Tại sao em sử dụng chiến lược nhờ giáo viên dịch sang tiếng Việt?

Câu hỏi 5: Lý do em sử dụng chiến lược đọc to nhiều lần là gì ? Câu hỏi 6: Tại sao em áp dụng chiến lược viết đi viết lại nhiều lần?

Câu hỏi 7: Tại sao em sử dụng chiến lược ghi chép tất cả các từ mới xuất hiện trong các giờ học trên lớp ? Câu hỏi 8: Tra từ điển Anh-Viêt, nhờ giáo viên dịch sang tiếng Việt, đọc to nhiều lần, viết đi viết lại nhiều lần, ghi chép tất cả các từ mới xuất hiện trong các giờ học trên lớp có phải là cách mà em hay áp dụng nhiều nhất để học từ vựng không khi em học phổ thông không?

Câu hỏi 9: Em giúp cô đánh giá hiệu quả của các chiến lược học từ vựng mà em hay áp dụng?

Câu hỏi 1 : Tra từ điển Anh-Viêt, nhờ giáo viên dịch sang tiếng Việt, đọc to nhiều lần, viết đi viết lại nhiều lần, ghi chép tất cả các từ mới xuất hiện trong các giờ học trên lớp có phải là cách mà các em áp dụng nhiều nhất để học từ vựng không?

Trả lời: Vâng, đúng ạ Đó là những cách mà em hay áp dụng khi học từ vựng

Câu hỏi 2 : Tại sao em sử dụng chiến lược ghi chép tất cả các từ mới xuất hiện trong các giờ học trên lớp?

Trả lời:Cô giáo em yêu cầu chúng em học thuộc từ mới mà cô cho Em dùng cách này để ghi lại cách viêt, cách phát âm và nghĩa của tù mới cô giáo cho ở trên lớp Em phải ghi lại để có tài liệu học

Câu hỏi 3 : Tại sao em sử dụng chiến lược nhờ giáo viên dịch sang tiếng Việt?

Thưa cô, cô giáo em thường yêu cầu chúng em dịch các bài khóa trong sách và khi không biết nghĩa của bất kỳ từ mới nào em thường hay hỏi cô nghĩa tương đương trong tiếng Việt Em có thể biết chính xác nghĩa của từ mới đó