Rationale 1
To any nation all over the world, culture and language are inseparable parts Language is a product of culture and reflects culture Therefore, during the process of acquiring another language, learners not only need to master the language but also understand its culture especially its values, norms and perception shared by native speakers
That English is so important brings the necessity of learning and teaching foreign language in Vietnam There has been a great demand of studying it as the most universal trend Most of the learners have a desire to reach a goal of communicative competence after each English course It is assumed that the comprehension and knowledge on the phonological, grammatical and lexical aspects are not only the bridge to the English language teaching and learning In fact, it is the differences in linguistics and communicative behaviors that cause the obstacles on its teaching and learning task People should bear in mind that things such as the place of silence, appropriate topics of conversation, forms of address, and expression of speech acts are different across cultures and the ability to use language appropriately plays a very important role in the communicative process
Therefore, English language teachers should be aware of these distinctive features to help learners overcome the psychological and cultural barriers in the teaching and learning process
It can be said that Vietnamese culture still has certain influences on English acquisition
The interference of the native culture, to some extents, may limit students’ ability to acquire the second language comprehensively Moreover, the researcher’s observation also points out that students get many difficulties in recognizing errors caused by the interference of their own Vietnamese cultural thought patterns The most common mistakes made by Vietnamese are in greeting routines, politeness, and indirectness – directness For example, many English speakers complain that Vietnamese are very nosy and inquisitive when they ask questions such as “Where are you going? Have you had lunch? What are you doing?” To many Vietnamese, however, these are common questions and people regard them as part of the greeting formula In addition, English speakers often remarks that Vietnamese do not greet and address them properly They often get annoyed or even feel frustrated with such questions The foreigners are not aware that it is cultural differences that cause them unpleasant feelings At the same time, Vietnamese people do not know that they have violated the others’ privacy and caused “culture shock” to the foreigners As a result, the two sides may fail to communicate effectively due to the cultural differences out of their expectation
Much of the reason lies in the fact that they do not pay attention to cultural differences in communication Additionally, it is a tradition that in Vietnam English teaching process focuses on only linguistic competence and cultural knowledge is not centrered on
This has inspired me to do research on cross-cultural communication with the focus on the three cultural dimensions based on Dr Nguyen Quang’s framework, namely: Subjectivity – Objectivity, Directness – Indirectness, Accuracy – Inaccuracy These cultural dimensions exist in every language but differ from culture to culture Hence this study was carried out in the expectation of studying some cultural practices in Vietnamese communication styles which affect the English learning process at Thanh Hoa Medical College.
Aims of the research 2
It can be affirmed that the study was carried out with 2 main aims
Firstly, this investigation aims to find out some cultural practices in Vietnamese communication styles which affect the English learning process
Secondly, it is hoped that some pedagogical implications for the English teachers will be drawn out.
Research questions 2
In fulfilling two main aims, the study needs to set up clear objectives Two following research questions are expected to make the objectives clear
Research question 1: How do some cultural dimensions, namely Subjectivity – Objectivity, Directness – Indirectness, Accuracy – Inaccuracy affect the Vietnamese learners of English?
Research question 2: What are the solutions for the Vietnamese teachers of English at
Significance of the research 2
The investigation provides an insightful awareness of the influences of some Vietnamese communicative practices on their learners of English
As for students, identifying what influential dimensions is a good way to better their English usage It should be noted that not all cultural dimensions can be considered to cause the interference on the use of English However, by the suggested implications, the research is expected to reveal some practical ways for students to practice their English and improve it
As for teachers, this is a good chance for them to reconsider the role of cultural dimensions in learning English Through the research, they can make use of some implications in order to improve students’ competence in English The study is also expected to generate a serious issue on cross-cultural studies Subsequent researches can develop the idea raised in the research.
Scope of the research 3
The study focuses on investigating the influences of some cultural dimensions on the language learning There will be three potential cultural dimensions on investigation namely subjectivity – objectivity, directness – indirectness, accuracy – inaccuracy presented in the theoretical background, and this predication will be looked into in the process of data analysis.
Methods of the research 3
The study was designed to use a combination of various methods to achieve its aims and objectives (qualitative and quantitative) To begin with, an extensive review of literature was conducted, critically examining some cultural dimensions affecting the English learning
Secondly, a useful and plausible tool is conducting a survey questionnaire on second-year students and teachers of English at Thanh Hoa Medical College to investigate how cultural dimensions affect the English learning at Thanh Hoa Medical College and the solutions.
Design of the research 3
The research consists of three parts, part A – Introduction as the first part, part B – Development including three chapters, chapter I is the Literature Review in which the review of works on the similar topics and the theoretical background will be revealed To be more specific, terms and relationship between culture, language and communication as well as the overview of some Vietnamese cultural dimensions are going to be presented
Chapter II is known as Discussion of the survey and Data analysis Chapter III named Some implications for Vietnamese ELT teachers Part C – Conclusion, which is the last one, concludes the major findings of the investigation, the limitations and suggestions for further research
LITERATURE REVIEW 4
Theoretical background 4
This part presents the background knowledge of related issues with a critical review The understanding of Culture – Language - Communication in general as well as the relationship between culture and language, language and communication, communication and culture, the influence of native culture on English learning will be taken into consideration as key concepts After that, potential influences of cultural dimensions will be investigated
1.1.1 An overview of Culture – Language – Communication 1.1.1.1 What is culture?
The term “culture” has been defined by many scholars It comes from the Latin word
“colere” that means to build on, to cultivate, and to foster Culture appeared at the same time mankind appeared and began to work However, culture is a general and abstract concept In each domain, culture is dealt with from different points of view
Rosaldo (1984) clarified that culture is far more than a mere catalogue of rituals and beliefs R.A.Hudson considered culture as “the kind of knowledge which we learn from other people either by direct instruction or by watching their behaviour.” This knowledge involves:
- cultural knowledge – which learned from other people
- shared non-cultural knowledge – which is shared by people within the same community or the world over, but is not learned from each other
- non-shared non-cultural knowledge which is unique to the individual According to Richard Camphell, culture in his book “Media and culture” was defined as “a broad category that identifies the ways in which people live and represent themselves at a particular historical times” Ronald Wardhaugh shared the similar idea with him when saying that “culture is the “know-how” that a person must possess to get through the task of daily living, only for a few does it require a knowledge of some, or much, music, literature and the arts” (1985: 217)
In short, the term culture has been defined in different ways by many scholars Culture is sometimes identified with notions of personal space, appropriate gestures, time and so forth Culture is something to learn, it affects the way we act and respond, including the visible aspects and dos and taboos of working in other countries
“Just as birds have wings, man has language The wings give the bird its peculiar aptitude for aerial locomotion Language enables man’s intelligence and passions to acquire their peculiar characters of intellect and sentiment.”
(G.H.Lewes – The study of psychology) Language is “a system of sounds, words, patterns, etc used by humans to communicate thoughts and feelings” (Oxford advanced learner’s encyclopedic dictionary: 506)
Halliday (1970: 143) pointed out three basic functions of language as following:
- Ideational function: expressing the speaker’s experience of the real world including the inner world of his own consciousness
- Interpersonal function: establishing and maintaining social relations
- Textual function: making links with language itself and with features of the situation in which it is used
From the above functions, we can see that language and culture have a close and inseparable relationship We cannot comprehend the one without understanding the other
Without the language of a culture, we surely have no means to communicate in that culture, and vice verse, with the absence of cultural knowledge in a language; we are unable to use the language appropriately
In general, language, certainly, is determined by culture Early anthropologists have the belief that language and its structure were totally dependent on the cultural context in which they existed However, thanks to language, culture is preserved and enriched All the beliefs, values, attitudes, and perceptions can be transmitted via language They are interwoven in such a way that culture influences the expressing language and language is full of cultural dimensions
Many applied linguists also concluded the interrelationship between language and culture
Edward Sapir (1921: 1961) stated that “language does not exist apart from culture, which is from the socially inherited assemblage of practices and beliefs that determines the texture of our lives.” and “language actually shapes the way in which we perceive, think and therefore act.” Language is really a mirror to reflect the ways of looking at the world
Therefore, in teaching and learning a language, language knowledge cannot be separated from culture as Kramsch (1993) said that “a language cannot be learnt without an understanding of the cultural context in which it is used.”
Language – “the most important means of communication of human being” (Lenin) - is not only studied as a system of signals but also considered in many fields of communicative act Without language, there would be limited communication Language has a significant meaning to our identity and existence in life It is a vivid reflection of thoughts, practices, tradition and culture Researches are realizing the importance of culture in language and language communication Language is a component making culture of a community and culture factors are present in language communication As the differences and similarities among languages in phonetics, grammar and vocabulary called cross-language, different communities have different language communication styles The differences in these communication styles are not identified easily and often cause misunderstandings For example, the “straight-forward to the problem” style of Anglicist culture seems to contrast with the “go around the bush” style of Vietnamese culture
People in the same country share the same cultural values and norms, so people with the same background communicate more easily than those who come from different cultures
However, the tendency to globalization has developed so quickly that cross cultural communication is unavoidable
According to Nguyen Quang (Cross-Cultural Communication, 1998: 5), cross cultural communication is the process of sharing or exchanging information verbally or non- verbally between people from different cultures which are influenced by different cultural values, attitudes and behaviors From this point of view, it can be seen that different cultural values and knowledge may lead to misunderstanding and culture shocks in particular contexts What is believed to be “right” in one culture may not be appropriate in another For example, Anglicist people may feel frustrated and unsatisfied with questions that they consider to be “too curious” or “impolite” such as “How old are you? Are you married? How much do you earn? ”, but in Vietnamese culture, they are quite normal and friendly
Some people use slangs so you can't look them up in the dictionary to get the real meaning, for instance, when you are in Vietnam, you will hear a man say something like "ông nội mày đấy" when they want to threat or play a joke
A: Ai đỗ xe ở đây vậy? (Who parked the car here?) B: Ông nội mày đấy! (It’s your grandfather!)
"Ông nội mày đấy" does not mean "grandfather" but just means "It’s me" (The implied meaning is that I’m on the higher position than you and you should be careful) And what are effects of these problems? Misunderstanding the languages makes you confused so much For example, when Westerners visit Vietnam, they may feel disturbed when hear
"What are you doing?" or "Where are you going?” Indeed, these sentences are just "Hi" or
"good morning" or in some situations Vietnamese people never say “thank you” or
“sorry”, instead they say “Em xin bác.)” or “Tôi đoảng quá!”
A: Here you are (Của chị đây.) B: I beg you (Em xin bác.)
Or someone spills some tea on someone else’s shirt, he may say “Tôi đoảng quá!” “I’m so clumsy!”
These may lead you to stress if you don't know how to deal To overcome these problems, it is necessary that people learn to recognize cultural differences and similarities That’s the reason why they need to take in cultural knowledge while learning a foreign language as Hymes (1964: xi) stated: “We know instinctively that to understand what somebody is saying, we must understand more than the surface of meaning of words We have to understand the context as well The need for background information applies all more to reading and writing To grasp the words on a page, we have to know a lot of information that isn’t set down on page” It is similar to Nguyen Quang’s idea that on trying to be successful in mastering a second language, the learner should reach not only linguistics but also cultural knowledge of the language (Nguyen Quang, 1997: 7)
1.1.2 Cross-cultural studies on the Anglicist – Vietnamese communication styles:
Review of previous studies 17
Nguyen Quang’s work in Foreign Language Journal (1998) points to draw the conclusion that there are fourteen major Anglo-American-Vietnamese cross-cultural categories
1 Subjectivity – Objectivity; 2 Directness – Indirectness; 3 Accuracy – Inaccuracy; 4
Positive and Negative politeness; 5 Self-abasement and self-assertion; 6 Abstractness – Rationality; 7 Sentimentality – Equality; 8 Hierarchy – Equality; 9 Introversion – Extroversion; 10 Deduction – Induction; 11 Group orientation – Individual orientation;
12 High context – Low context; 13 Redundancy – Economicality; 14 Staticality – Dynamicality
Such dimensions exist in every language The problem is that one culture may be in favour of one side of a certain dimension than another For example, in terms of directness – indirectness dimension, Anglicist people (British, American, Australian ) tend to be more direct in speaking than Oriental people Vietnam is an example, it is common for Vietnamese people to have the habit of “beating around the bush” before going to the main point
The study on the influences of Vietnamese cultural factors on English learning among first – year students at English Department, CFL, VNU, which was carried out by Do Mai Thanh & Van Thanh Binh (1998) took this matter into consideration The study mentioned the common mistakes made by the first year students in the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education (formerly known as English Department), University of Languages and International Studies, VNU due to the influences of some cultural categorical dimensions
This was conducted among the 1 st year students K32 in 1999 and over ten years has gone by, therefore, the results may have been different thanks to the openness of Vietnam to the world, the improvement of the process of learning and communicating in English, the incorporation of cultural points into language lessons at upper secondary schools in Vietnam
Another study by Ho Gia Anh Le in 2003 on Accuracy and Inaccuracy in English and Vietnamese also dealt with aspects of Accuracy and Inaccuracy in English and Vietnamese, the influence of this categorical dimension on English learning and some implications for the learning and teaching of both Vietnamese and English as foreign languages The author comments that most of sentences that the pupils made were grammatically correct but there existed a lot of cultural mistakes due to the interference of cross-cultural categories in general, and Accuracy and Inaccuracy category in particular
The most typical errors are verb tenses, prepositions of place, the use of directness and indirectness in communication, insufficient redundancies in English usage
Tran Thanh Dung’s study (2004) concentrates on cultural factors that affects on teaching and learning English in secondary schools in terms of cultural category Subjectivity – Objectivity This implies that the subjectivity of Vietnamese learners has much effect on their process of learning English Many pupils find it disappointed and bored with learning a second language when they meet difficulties in doing exercises One of the reasons is that they lack cultural experience, so they sometimes make mistake while studying Therefore it is essential that they be provided enough cultural knowledge to avoid misinterpretation in the lessons
CHAPTER II: DISCUSSION OF THE SURVEY AND DATA ANALYSIS 2.1 Students’ survey
2.1.1 Discussion of the survey questionnaire and the informants
This survey questionnaire is designed to research the interference of some cultural dimensions on the medical students, as seen from cross-culture and communication
The Vietnamese student respondents are 300 in number They are second year students of nursing at Thanh Hoa Medical College
The survey consists of two main parts
In the first part: students are asked what to say in the following situations:
1 Situation 1: You meet your English friend(s) in the street
2 Situation 2: You want to borrow your friend VND 200,000 for some reason
3 Situation 3: Your friend says to you: “What a beautiful dress you have!”
4 Situation 4: You want to refuse your friend’s invitation to his/her party for some reason
In the second part, students are asked to translate four sentences
- The aim of this sentence is to investigate how students use prepositions to translate (“to” or other prepositions)
2 Mặc dù thời tiết xấu nhưng họ vẫn đến đúng giờ
- This sentence is aimed to look into how students use “although”/“but”
3 Bởi vì trời mưa cho nên tôi ở nhà
- This sentence is to investigate if Vietnamese students use both “because” and “so”
4 Hôm qua tôi bị thi trượt
- The aim of this is to check whether Vietnamese students know the difference between English and Vietnamese passive voice
However, the survey cannot cover some following factors:
- Students’ language proficiency – what their English levels – beginning, intermediate or advanced are All of the students are in their second year and their supposed English level is pre-intermediate
- Students’ communicative competence – this is a survey questionnaire and students are asked to express their use of English in written form, that is although there are questions to test their communicative competence and spoken language, the author can not access 300 students to measure individually
The information about the informants’ profiles is also important for data analysis
Therefore, the following parameters are taken into account where necessary
- More than 10 years: 0 students (They started learning English at high school.) +Gender
- Female: 269 students This is understandable because in nursing classes female students are always in majority
+ Area where they spend most of the time:
- Urban: 120 students + Acquisition of other foreign languages:
- Not knowing any foreign language: 300 students Because of time limitation of this study, the author was not able to investigate with native speakers Thus, I based on the standard English according to English textbook Headway
A Part 1: How would you respond in the following situations?
1 Situation 1: You meet your English friend (s) in the street:
Hello/Hi/Good morning Etc
11 % students only used greeting structures such as “Hello, Hi, Good morning, Good afternoon, How do you do?” etc 12 % students employ “health question” Notably, only
10 % learners resorted to “work questions” as a greeting routine: “How are you getting on?” “How is every thing?”, “How are you doing?” Work questions are very commonly used in English for greeting; however, the number of students who employed such questions is quite small It should be noted that up to 67 % used concerning questions such as:
- Hello! Where are you going?
- Hi! Where are you going now?
- Hello! How are you? Where do you go?
- Hi! What are you doing here? Etc
These questions indicate quite obviously Vietnamese cultural influences In Vietnamese culture, direction questions are widely used to greet people and Vietnamese students unconsciously apply such questions to foreigners
2 Situation 2: You want to borrow your friend VND 200,000 for some reason
14 % students resorted to direct requests without giving any reasons such as:
- Could/Can/May/Might you lend me VND 200,000?
- Could/Can/May/Might I borrow you VND 200,000?
34 % students made requests first then add reasons 96 % out of them gave reasons by saying: “Because I ” For example:
- Could you lend me VND 200,000? Because I want to buy some books
- Would you lend me VND 200,000? Because I have to pay for my rent house
- Might you lend me VND 200,000? Because my brother is getting married and I have no money now Etc
- Could you lend me VND 200,000 for doing something?
In Vietnamese culture, it is natural when people give reasons before making requests
Many students verbose before coming to their point Their reasons are rather lengthy in any cases:
- Oh! I really want to buy a present for my brother on his wedding but I have left my purse at home May I borrow you VND 200,000?
- I want to buy some very interesting books but I haven’t got enough money at the moment So could you lend me VND 200,000? I promise I will pay you back next week
It can be observed that the ways some of the requests are clearly of Vietnamese style The following examples demonstrate this:
- Sorry, I’ve lost money And I have to pay for my rent house I don’t think of anyone who can help me now except you So can I borrow you VND 200,000?
- Oh! I forgot to bring my money And now I want to buy a new dress So can you lend me VND 200,000?
- Oh dear! My mother is ill and she’s in hospital now But I can’t go home to get money Would you lend me VND 200,000?
- I’ve lost my bicycle and I don’t know how to go to school I need to buy a new one but I haven’t got enough money So could you lend me VND 200,000?
- Oh my God, it’s the end of the month and I have to pay for the electricity and water bills, unless I will be out of the house But I run out of money now What can I do?
Would you lend me VND 200,000?
- Oh, today is my first day at college, I have to attend all the lectures and buy a lot of books for the beginning of the new term If I go into class without any books, the teachers will let me get out And I have no money here Oh, if my parents know this, I’ll die So could you lend me VND 200,000?
- Today is my mother’s birthday I have to buy her a nice present Oh, I forgot my purse at home Would you lend me VND 200,000?
- My class is off this morning By the way I want to have my hair and nail cut because I’m near the hairdresser’s but I have not enough money So could you lend me VND 200,000?
These ways of expressions are acceptable in Vietnamese, but it may not be easily accepted by many Anglicists Such kind of requests are long and sometimes unnecessary and may make Anglicist people uncomfortable
Besides, the indirect strategy was also employed by 30 % students For example:
- Oh! I have left my purse at home
- Do you have any money here?
- Are you my good friend?
Moreover, 11 % students make such requests as:
- Could you lend me some money, my friend?
- Would you give me some money, my best friend?
- Can you lend me some money, my good brother/sister?
These kinds of addressing forms are quite common in Vietnamese to enhance closeness between speaker and hearer, but not quite common in English
3 Situation 3: Your friend says to you: “What a beautiful dress you have!”
Assertion Wondering Diversion Washback compliment
15 % of the students responded directly by saying “thank you” (Assertion strategy)
However, among them, besides saying “Thank you”, 32 % of them still felt “doubtful” and used “wondering strategy” (Nguyen Quang) by asking more questions to assure, such as:
- Is it really suitable for me?
- Do you think it suits me?
- Do you really think so? Etc
20 % out of these students self-flattered, e.g.:
- Of course, I have to pay a lot for it
- I even have the more beautiful one
- I think it is beautiful too
- Of course, because I’m a beautiful girl so my shirt is beautiful too
- Do you know how much it costs? Etc
Among the rest, 20 % diverted the compliment (diversion strategy – Nguyen Quang) by saying:
- It’s the present that my mother bought on my birthday I like it a lot
- I’ve just bought it It costs VND 500,000
- Do you want to have the same one? Let’s go shopping
- My cousin has given it to me
About 13 % students turned down the compliment:
- Thank you for your remark but I don’t think so
- Thank you, but I don’t like this dress very much
- Thanks, but it’s only a second-hand
- No, it’s not beautiful at all
- Not at all Thank you
- It doesn’t suit me at all
26 % students, besides thanking, also employed “washback compliment strategy”
(Nguyen Quang) to the speaker himself/herself or to the things she/he possesses For instance:
+ To the speaker himself/herself
- It’s very kind of you to say so
- You are very kind to say so
- You also look attractive today
- You are a very good friend
+ To the things the speaker possesses:
- Your dress is very nice, too
- Your dress is also very beautiful
- Yours is also very nice
4 Situation 4 You want to refuse your friend’s invitation to her party for some reason
Lead – in structures/ Reasons first + Refuse Refuse first + Reasons
37 % students refused first then added reasons The rest (63 %) employed lead –in structures or gave reasons before refusing, for example:
- It sounds lovely But I have a date with my friend on that day I regret I can’t come
- It is very interesting But I’m terribly sorry I am ill and I have headache so I can’t go with you See you again
- I know you are unpleasant if I can’t come, but I’m afraid I can’t I’m so busy this time I must visit my aunt because she had a broken leg
- Thank you very much but I’m very busy this week I have to do a lot of exercises because I’m going to have a test I can’t come to your party
- Thank you for your invitation I want to attend your party, yet I’m going to have many exams I am sorry So I can’t come
It is worth noticing that many Vietnamese students prefer roundabout expressions when refusing The followings can be taken as typical examples:
- Oh! What a pity! I’m sorry but I’m afraid I will not be probably able to come I have an exam that day Thanks
- Thank you for inviting me to your party, but I think that I shall not be able to come, because I have to take my brother’s wedding on that day I wish you would have a great time
- What a pity! I am sorry I’d love to but I have to do a lot of work because my mother is ill I wish your party would take place another time
These lengthy explanations may be seen as typical cases among Vietnamese
B Part 2: How would you express the following sentences in English?
1 Sentence 1: Vào Nam ra Bắc (to the North and to the South meaning (traveling) back and forth the country.)
This sentence is to check how students use prepositions 23 % students use the right preposition “to”, 77 % students employed other prepositions such as “in”, “into”, “out”,
“out of” % out of this group used the preposition “in” and “out” and their translations are as follows:
- Go in South, go out North
- Into South, out of North
This reveals the influence of Vietnamese thought pattern: “vào, ra” Many Vietnamese students used English prepositions subjectively as they do in their mother tongue
2 Sentence 2: Mặc dù thời tiết rất xấu nhưng họ vẫn tới đúng giờ
(Although the weather was bad, they came on time.)
This figure makes the author really surprise: 100% students use both “although” and “but”:
- Although the weather was bad, but they came on time
3 Sentence 3: Bởi vì trời mưa cho nên tôi ở nhà
(Because it rained, I stayed at home.)
Especially 100% out of this group used “because” and “so” when translating
- Because it rained, so I stayed at home
4 Sentence 4: Hôm qua tôi bị thi trượt
65 % students translated the sentence in English in passive voice:
- I was failed the exam yesterday
In fact, the sentence is not in passive voice The word “bị” here does not work as a grammatical marker of passive voice It is used here only for the speaker’s feelings
However, these students were not aware of that and made mistakes
2.1.3 Comments on the results of the survey questionnaire
Through the statistics of the survey, I would like to make some tentative remarks on the questionnaire results
+ Due to the influences of culture and language, Vietnamese students much or less have the tendency of imposing their cultural thought patterns on their English expressions In using prepositions, they are likely to reveal their subjective points of view to the surroundings, e.g they say “go in South” or “go out North” instead of “go to the South, go to the North” Their subjective thought patterns can also be realized in the way they translate the word “bị” in the sentence “Hôm qua tôi bị thi trượt.”: “I was failed the exam yesterday”
+ Notably, when borrowing money, they use many Vietnamese style address forms such as
“my best friend”, “my good sister/brother” to reinforce closeness and narrow distance
This is understandable and acceptable for Vietnamese people but it is not advisable to apply to foreigners, for many of whom may feel annoyed when being called “sister” or
“brother” They also tend to use indirect strategy to borrow money with lengthy reasons
When complemented, many of Vietnamese students are “in the habit of refusing” by saying “No”, “Not at all”, “I don’t think so”, etc
+ Most of the students use both “although” and “but”, “because” and “so” in a sentence
The factors causing interference for Vietnamese learners may be explained as the followings:
- Lack of first language and second language equivalence
- Semantic nuances of foreign language difference
- Discourse and cultural patterns from first language do not carry over entirely into the second language Students may trip up occasionally over difficulty in expressing their ideas
- Despite using English, they do not share the same culture background
(Do Mai Thanh, 2000: 28) Besides, the more years the students had studied English, the fewer mistakes they made