PHYSICAL TECHNIQUES IN THE STUDY OF ART, ARCHAEOLOGY AND CULTURAL HERITAGE VOLUME Cover photograph: The pots are part of the Egyptian Collection of the Royal Albert Memorial Museum and Art Gallery, Exeter, UK PHYSICAL TECHNIQUES IN THE STUDY OF ART, ARCHAEOLOGY AND CULTURAL HERITAGE Editors DAVID BRADLEY University of Surrey Department of Physics, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK DUDLEY CREAGH University of Canberra Faculty of Information Sciences and Engineering Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia VOLUME Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London • New York • Oxford Paris • San Diego • San Francisco • Singapore • Sydney • Tokyo ELSEVIER Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK 84 Theobald’s Road, London WC1X 8RR, UK 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA First edition 2006 Copyright © 2006 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; Email: permissions@elsevier.com Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting: Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made ISBN-13: 978-0-444-52131-6 ISBN-10: 0-444-52131-3 ISSN: 1871-1731 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at books.elsevier.com Printed and bound in The Netherlands 06 07 08 09 10 10 Contents vii Preface Chapter The Modern Museum Jean Louis Boutaine 1 Introduction Examination, characterisation, analysis of cultural heritage artefacts … why? Institutions and networks active at the interface between “science and technology” and “cultural heritage” Main techniques used in the study of cultural heritage artefacts Conclusion Acknowledgements Appendix 1: Some national cultural heritage institutions Appendix 2: Websites of interest in the domain “science and technology” and “cultural heritage” Appendix 3: Some publications of interest in the domain “science and technology” and “cultural heritage” Appendix 4: Questions to be solved by radiography, some examples References 11 26 27 27 28 29 29 31 Chapter X-ray and Neutron Digital Radiography and Computed Tomography for Cultural Heritage Franco Casali 41 10 43 44 52 55 68 74 80 82 86 98 Introduction Radiation sources Interaction of the radiation with matter Digital imaging for X- and γ rays Detectors for X- and γ rays Experimental acquisition of digital radiographs: some examples Digital imaging for neutron radiation Computed tomography using X-rays and gamma photons Experimental acquisition of computed tomographs: some examples Suggestions and Conclusions v vi Contents Appendix A: Basic notions concerning Fourier Transforms Appendix B: Modulation Transfer Function Appendix C: Characteristics of some detection systems Acknowledgements References Chapter Investigation of Diagenetic and Postmortem Bone Mineral Change by Small-Angle X-ray Scattering Jennifer C Hiller and Tim J Wess Introduction and context Biomolecular preservation Microfocus SAXS and two-dimensional mapping Detection of burning and cremation Conclusions References Chapter The Use of X-ray Scattering to Analyse Parchment Structure and Degradation Craig J Kennedy and Tim J Wess Parchment Techniques Results Surface to surface analysis of parchment cross sections Laser cleaned parchment Conclusions References 99 108 116 121 121 125 126 133 136 140 145 146 151 152 157 161 163 166 169 169 Chapter Egyptian Eye Cosmetics (“Kohls”): Past and Present Andrew D Hardy, R.I Walton, R Vaishnav, K.A Myers and M.R Power and D Pirrie 173 174 180 183 192 199 201 202 Introduction Materials and methods Results Discussion Conclusions Acknowledgements References Author Index 205 Subject Index 217 Preface This volume is the first of a series on “Physical Techniques in the Study of Art, Archaeology and Cultural Heritage” It follows a successful earlier publication by Elsevier (Radiation in Art and Archaeometry), also produced by the editors of this book, Dr David Bradley (Department of Physics, University of Surrey) and Professor Dudley Creagh (Director of the Cultural Heritage Research Centre, University of Canberra) There has been an upsurge of interest world wide in cultural heritage issues, and in particular, large organizations such as UNESCO and the European Union are active in providing funding for a very diverse range of projects in cultural heritage preservation It is perceived that it is essential to preserve the cultural heritage of societies, both to benefit the future generations of those societies, and to inform other cultures Also, institutions and locations of cultural heritage significance provide an impetus for the tourist industry of a country, and for many, cultural tourism contributes substantially to their national economy A growing need exists for the education of conservators and restorers because it is these professionals who will make decisions on how best to preserve our cultural heritage Therefore, the primary aim of this book series is the dissemination of technical information on scientific conservation to scientific conservators, museum curators, conservation science students, and other interested people Scientific conservation, as a discipline, is a comparatively modern concept For many years, interested scientists have addressed scientific problems associated with cultural heritage artefacts But their involvement has been sporadic and driven by the needs of individual museums, rather than a personal lifetime study of issues of conservation of, for example, buildings, large functional objects, paintings, and so on The contributors of this book series are from both “interested scientists” and the “museum-based scientists” The authors have been selected with an eye to involving young as well as established scientists The author of chapter 1, Dr Jean Louis Boutaine, was Head of the Research Department of the Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France at the Louvre, at his retirement He trained initially as a physicist in the application of non-destructive analytical techniques, and has extensive experience in equipment design, and in the application of radioisotopes to the solution of scientific problems Dr Boutaine has had the most distinguished career within the conservation science community Since his retirement, he has been extremely active in driving the expansion of cultural heritage research within the European Community, through involvement in EU Projects and the organization of vii viii Preface conferences; He is the EU-ARTECH Networking Activity Coordinator This chapter is a veritable “treasure trove” of information It discusses the use of science and technology to study aspects of the preservation of cultural heritage taken in its broadest sense: works of art, museum collections, books, manuscripts, drawings, archival documents, musical instruments, ethnographic objects, archaeological findings, natural history collections, historical buildings, industrial heritage objects and building This chapter explains how science and technology are used to provide information which will assist us to understand how the artefacts have been created, how they have been handled (or mis-handled) since their creation, and how we can preserve them for the culture and the pleasure of future generations A review of the different techniques (examination, characterization, analysis) which are applied in this discipline of “conservation science” is presented This is illustrated by many recent examples in various cultural areas Some major national cultural heritage institutions, as well as European networks active in this area, are indicated An important bibliography, including websites of interest, is provided The author of chapter 2, Professor Franco Casali, is a physicist by training and his interests include the study of scientific conservation He has been a researcher at the ENEA (the Italian nuclear authority) and was the Director of a Research Centre with two experimental reactors He was also an Expert of the United Nations (IAEA) for nuclear power stations His last position at the ENEA was as Director of Physics and Scientific Calculus Division of the ENEA Since 1985, he has been associated with “Health Physics” at the University of Bologna Also, he is responsible for the teaching of “Archaeometry” At the University of Bologna, he leads a group of young physicists and computer science experts, who have developed advanced equipment for both micro-Computer Tomography and for large-object Computer Tomography He has been one of the Italian representatives in the European Neutron Radiography Working Group This chapter commences with a description of the physical principles underlying the techniques of X-ray and neutron and digital radiography It then proceeds to discuss the application of these techniques for the study of objects of cultural heritage significance Professor Tim Wess is responsible for Chapters and of this volume, which were co-authored by his research associates (Jennifer Hiller, in Chapter 3, and Craig Kennedy, in Chapter 4) Professor Wess holds the Chair of Biomaterials in the Biophysics Division in the School of Optometry and Vision Science at Cardiff University His research interests include: the characterization of partially ordered biopolymers and mineralizing systems; and structural alterations of biophysical systems due to strain and /or degradation The systems in which he is interested contain collagen, fibrillin, and cellulose (which relate, in the cultural heritage discipline, to an interest in parchment and papers) A parallel interest is in the structure of bone and artificial composite materials (which relates to his interest in historical studies of bone materials) Chapter will describe the technique of SAXS (Small-angle X-ray scattering), and show how this has been used to study alteration to structure of minerals in the bone Preservation of intact bone mineral crystallites has been shown to relate to the endurance of amplifiable ancient DNA from archaeological and fossil bone Moreover, the variation in bone crystallite size and habit across a two-dimensional area has been studied in modern and archaeological samples Finally, the alteration to bone mineral during experimental heating has been investigated Preface ix In Chapter 4, there is a description of research being undertaken on historical parchments in collaboration with Dr K Nielsen and Rene Larsen (School of Conservation, Copenhagen, Denmark) This research involves the analysis of the deterioration of historic parchments and also the simulation of the ageing process by induced oxidative damage (This work has been supported by the EU 5th Framework on Cultural Heritage Conservation and the National Archive for Scotland) The author of chapter 5, Andrew Hardy, received his D.Phil in X-ray Crystallography, from Sussex University (UK) in 1971 He began studying Middle Eastern eye cosmetics (“kohls”) in the early 1990s whilst working in Oman He has continued this work in his present position at the School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Exeter University, Political and Sociological Studies, Exeter University The chapter summarizes and reviews the published data on the usage and composition of kohls in ancient (Pharaonic) Egypt It also gives some information, from later time periods, on kohl usage and its “recipes” This is followed by a brief description of the experimental techniques used in his studies of past and present Egyptian kohl samples The techniques used were: XRPD (X-ray powder diffraction), LV SEM (low vacuum scanning electron microscopy), IR (infrared spectroscopy) and the relatively new technique QEMSCAN (quantitative scanning electron microscopy) Results are given on thirty-three samples of both old and new kohls using these analytical techniques The old samples were obtained from the Pharaonic kohl pots shown on the front cover of this book; the pots are part of the Egyptian collection of the Royal Albert Memorial Museum and Art Gallery, Exeter, UK Finally, there is a comparison of past and present kohl compositions, concentrating on the toxicology of lead and how it is related to the particle size of the galena present Also, there is consideration of the cultural usage of kohl, via information on its containers etc., in ancient and modernday Egypt 210 Hunt, B.R., see Andrews, H.C 67, 122 ICDD, 181, 202 Illerhaus, B 51, 122 Ioannidou, B., see Calligaro, T 19, 33, 19–20, 34 Ioannidou, E 20, 35 Iozzo, M., see Siano, S 23, 37 Irigoin, J., see Boutaine, J.L 16, 33 Izumi, Y., see Matsushima, N 127, 130, 147 Jackson, S.E., see Jeffries, T.E 25, 38 Jansen, E., see Kockelmann, W 23, 37 Janssens, K 11, 32 Janssens, K., see Somogyi, A 166, 171 Janssens, K., see Vekemans, B 166, 172 Jeffries, T.E 25, 38 Jenkins, B., see Gottlieb, P 182, 203 Jennings, H.M., see Thomas, J.J 129, 147 Jerosch, H., see Larsen, R 162, 171 Johansson, A.M., see Brunetti, B 9, 31 Juang, H.Y 141, 149 Juchauld, F., see Larsen, R 162, 171 Jusko, T.A., see Canfield, R.L 194, 203 Kak, A.C 83, 122 Kak, A.C., see Rosenfeld, A 67, 122 Kaneno, M., see Okazaki, M 133, 139, 148 Karbowska, J., see Strzelczyk, A.B 152, 155, 169 Karkanas, P 134, 148 Kautek, W 167, 172 Kawabata, Y., see Nakano, T 97, 123 Keck, S., see Bridgman, C.F 16, 33 Kenchington, A.W 156, 171 Kennedy, C.J 153, 170, 159, 164, 167–168, 171 Kennedy, C.J., see Larsen, R 162, 171 Kennedy, K.A.R 140, 148 Kielty, C.M 153, 170 Kilikoglou, V., see Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki, P 25, 38 Kirfel, A., see Kockelmann, W 22–23, 36 Kirkel, A., see Kockelmann, W 23, 37 Kirkman, I.W., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Klaasen, C.D 194, 195, 203 Klaushofer, K., see Fratzl, P 126–127, 130, 132–133, 134, 136, 146, 131, 147 Klein, M., see Blümich, B 25, 38 Klockenkämper, R 19, 33 Klockenkämper, R., see de Reu, M 24, 38 Klockenkämper, R., see Devos, W 19, 33 Klockenkämper, R., see Moens, L 19, 33 Klockenkämper, R., see Wehling, B 24, 37 Koch, M.H., see Bigi, A 164, 171 Kockelmann, W 22–23, 36, 23, 37, 48, 121 Kockelmann, W., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Author Index Kockelmann, W., see Siano, S 23, 36–37 Kohn, V., see Snigirev, A 136, 148 Kohn, V., see Snigirev, A 163, 171 Koller, K., see Fratzl, P 126, 130, 132–133, 146 Konig, E., see Kautek, W 167, 172 Koren, N 116, 123 Kowalczyk, A., see Targowski, P 18, 33 Krajewski, A., see Ravaglioli, A 141, 144, 149 Kratky, O 128, 147 Kratky, O., see Glatter, O 127, 147 Kress, J.W., see Feldkamp, L.A 86, 122 Kronick, P.L 153, 170 Kruger, J., see Kautek, W 167, 172 Kuhn, S.L., see Stiner, M.C 140–141, 148 Kustanovich, Z., see Weiner, S 156–158, 168, 170 Kuzumin, Y.V 48, 121 Lagarde, P., see Bouquillon, A 20, 35 Lammie, D., see Kennedy, C.J 164, 171 Lanconelli, N., see Pasini, A 86, 123 Lane, E.W 179, 202 Lang, J 15, 32 Lanphear, B.P., see Canfield, R.L 194, 203 Lanterna, G., see Zucchiatti, A 20, 34 Larenas, E., see Condell, R.A 156, 171 Laroque, C., see Guillemard, D 7, 31 Larsen, P.K., see Padfield, T 7, 31 Larsen, R 152, 155, 156, 160, 162, 166, 169, 155–156, 170, 160, 162, 171 Larsen, R., see Cooper, M 167, 172 Larsen, R., see Sportun S 167, 172 Laurent, A.M., see Dubus, M 20, 35 Lavédrine, B 7, 31 Lazic, V 25, 38 Le Coustumer, P., see Chaulet, D 20, 35 Le Prat, A., see de la Chapelle, A 16, 33 Lee, F.S.N., see Hansen, E 153, 170 Lefebvre, M.A., see Walter, P 22–23, 35 Lefebvre, M.A., see Walter, Ph 175, 177–178, 197, 202 LeGeros, R.Z 126, 146 Lehman, E.H., see Deschler-Erb, E 97, 123 Leichtfried, D., see Kautek, W 167, 172 Lemonnier, A., see Boutaine, J.L 16, 33 Lengeler, B 136, 148 Lengeler, B., see Snigirev, A 136, 148 Leroy, M., see Dubus, M 20, 35 Leslie, N.J., see Gorham, S.D 162, 171 Levillain, A 7, 31 Lidén, K., see Götherström, A 127, 133, 147 Light, N.D., see Gorham, S.D 162, 171 Lindgren, E.S 18, 33 Linke, R., see Kockelmann, W 23, 37 Author Index Loftus, R.T., see Troy, C.S 138–139, 148 Logan, C.M., see Martz, Jr., H.E 52, 122, 91, 123 Longerich, H.P., see Jeffries, T.E 25, 38 Loreille, O 138, 148 Lovestam, N.E.G., see Olsson, A.M.B 20, 34 Lu, Y.F., see Zheng, Y.W 168, 172 Lucarelli, F., see Zucchiatti, A 20, 34 Lucas, A 174–176, 179, 192–193, 202 Luk’yanchuk, B.S., see Zheng, Y.W 168, 172 Macchiarelli, R., see Rossi, M 86, 122 MacHugh, D.E., see Troy, C.S 138–139, 148 MacLean, E.J., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Magee, D.A., see Troy, C.S 138–139, 148 Mai, Z.H., see Zheng, Y.W 168, 172 Mairinger, F 14–15, 32 Mairot, P., see Levillain, A 7, 31 Malins, A., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Mando, P., see Zucchiatti, A 20, 34 Manniche, L 174, 196, 202 Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki, P 25, 38 Marcus, M., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Marcus, M.A., see Smith, A.D 22–23, 36 Markarian, P., see Levillain, A 7, 31 Marshall, P., see Parker-Pearson, M 127, 147 Martin, E 15, 32 Martin, G., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Martin, G., see Burgio, L 22–23, 36 Martinetto, P 22–23, 35, 175, 178, 197, 202 Martinetto, P., see Bouquillon, A 20, 35 Martinetto, P., see Ungar, T 175, 177–178, 195, 202 Martinetto, P., see Walter, P 22–23, 35 Martinetto, P., see Walter, Ph 175, 177–178, 197, 202 Martini, D., see Raspanti, M 144, 149 Martz, Jr., H.E 52, 122, 91, 123 Massari, R 81, 97, 122 Matsushima, N 127, 130, 147 Matteini, M., see Bracci, S 51, 122 Matushima, U., see Nakano, T 97, 123 May, R., see Dubus, M 20, 35 Maywald-Pitellos, C., see Kautek, W 167, 172 Meek, K.M 164, 171 Memmi-Turbanti, I., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Mencaglia, A.A., see Bacci, M 7, 31 Mendelsohn, A.L., see Camacho, N.P 127, 147 Mendelsohn, R., see Miller, L.M 126, 134, 146 Menon, N.S., see Al-Khayat, A 194, 203 Menu, M 18, 33 Menu, M., see Elias, M 24, 37 Menu, M., see Reiche, I 126, 147 Menu, M., see Reiche, I 23, 36 Menu, M., see Simonot, L 24, 37 Mercado, R.T., see Condell, R.A 156, 171 211 Merchel, H., see Reiche, I 20, 34 Miccio, M., see Siano, S 23, 37 Michele, Sr., S.C., see Deasy, C.L 156, 170 Middleton, A.P., see Bartsiokas, A 126, 147 Migniani, A.G., see Bacci, M 7, 31 Milazzo, M., see Baldelli, P 15, 32 Millard, A.R., see Collins, M.J 126, 146 Mille, B 23, 37 Mille, B., see Bonnet, C 20, 35 Mille, B., see Bourgarit, D 23, 37 Mille, B., see Moulherat, C 15, 32 Miller, A., see Orgel, J.P 154, 170 Miller, A.G 179, 199, 202 Miller, G.L., see Pirrie, D., 182, 203 Miller, L.M 126, 134, 146 Millis, A., see Van Hooydonk, G 24, 38 Misof, K., see Fratzl, P 153–154, 170 Miyake, Y., see Matsushima, N 127, 130, 147 Moen, L., see Klockenkämper, R 19, 33 Moens, L 19, 33 Moens, L., see de Reu, M 24, 38 Moens, L., see Devos, W 19, 33 Moens, L., see Edwards, H.G.M 24, 38 Moens, L., see Van Hooydonk, G 24, 38 Moens, L., see Vandenabeele, P 24, 38 Moens, L., see Wehling, B 24, 37 Mohen, J.P 4, 31 Moignard, B., see Bertrand, L 20, 35 Moignard, B., see Bouquillon, A 20, 35 Moignard, B., see Calligaro, T 19, 33, 19–20, 34 Moignard, B., see Calligaro, T 21, 35 Moignard, B., see Dubus, M 20, 35 Moignard, B., see Dubus, M 20, 35 Moignard, B., see Olsson, A.M.B 20, 34 Moignard, B., see Zucchiatti, A 20, 34 Molera, J., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Molera, J., see Pradell, T 22–23, 36 Molera, J., see Salvadó, N 22–23, 36 Molera, J., see Smith, A.D 22–23, 36 Monod, S., see Lavédrine, B 7, 31 Montalbano, L 20, 34 Montanari, L., see Ravaglioli, A 141, 144, 149 Montgomery, J., see Parker-Pearson, M 127, 147 Morel, S., see Adar, F 24, 37 Morigi, M.P., see Pasini, A 86, 123 Morigi, M.P., see Rossi, M 64, 86, 122 Morigi, M.P., see Bettuzzi, M 84, 122 Morone, A., see Lazic, V 25, 38 Morpoulou, A., see Avdelidis, N.P 18, 33 Morresi, A., see Cataliotti, R.S 24, 37 Morris, M., see Miller, A.G 179, 199, 202 Moulherat, C 15, 32 Moulherat, C., see Guerra, M.F 20, 34 Moulherat, C., see Regert, M 25, 38 212 Mucchi, L 15, 32 Müller, M 22–23, 36 Muller, M., see Burghammer, M 161, 171 Muller, M., see Quatrehomme, G 144, 149 Mulville, J., see Parker-Pearson, M 127, 147 Murphy, B.M., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Murphy, B.M., see Müller, M 22–23, 36 Murray, K.A 140, 148 Nagel, E., see Opitz-Coutureau, J 20, 34 Nakano, T 97, 123 Narchi, H 194, 203 Nava, E., see Rossi, M 64, 122 Needleman, H.L 194, 203 Neelmeijer, C., see Kockelmann, W 23, 36 Neilsen, K., see Larsen, R 155, 170 Neilsen-Marsh, C.M., see Collins, M.J 126, 146 Newesely, H 141, 149 Newton, E.M., see Edwards, H.G.M 24, 38 Nielsen, K., see Larsen, R 160, 162, 171 Nielsen, K., see Wess, T.J 127, 131, 133, 142, 147 Nielsen, K., see Wess, T.J 158, 171 Nora, P 4, 31 Nunn, J.F 174, 175, 202 Odegaard, N 11, 32 Odierna, G., see Guarino, F.M 140, 148 Odlyha, M., see Larsen, R 162, 171 Okazaki, M 133, 139, 148 Ollier, A., see Quatrehomme, G 144, 149 Olsson, A.M.B 20, 34 Opitz-Coutureau, J 20, 34 Oralando, L., see Loreille, O 138, 148 Orgel, J.P 154, 170 Orgel, J.P., see Wess, T.J 154, 170 Otto, D., see Schwartz, J 194, 203 Owsley, D.W 140, 148 Padeletti, G., see Menu, M 18, 33 Padfield, T 7, 31 Pagès-Camagna, S 24, 37 Palm, J., see Larsen, R 162, 171 Paltrinieri, E., see Bettuzzi, M 84, 122 Palucci, A., see Lazic, V 25, 38 Pani, S., see Pasini, A 86, 123 Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Pantos, E., see Burgio, L 22–23, 36 Pantos, E., see De Ryck, I 22–23, 36 Pantos, E., see Kockelmann, W 22–23, 36 Pantos, E., see Müller, M 22–23, 36 Pantos, E., see Pradell, T 22–23, 36 Author Index Pantos, E., see Salvadó, N 22–23, 36 Pantos, E., see Smith, A.D 22–23, 36 Pantos, M 51, 122 Panzavolta, S., see Ascenzi, A.-G 164, 171 Panzavolta, S., see Bigi, A 164, 171 Papiz, M.Z., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Papiz, M.Z., see Müller, M 22–23, 36 Papiz, M.Z., see Salvadó, N 22–23, 36 Pardo, E.S 11, 32 Paris, F., see Person, A 126, 147 Paris, O., see Fratzl, P 131, 147 Paris, O., see Wess, T.J 127, 131, 133, 142, 147 Paris, O., see Wess, T.J 158, 171 Parker, S 140, 148 Parker-Pearson, M 127, 147 Parkington, A., see Sillen, A 127, 147 Parkinson, M.J., see Bloodworth, J.G 167, 172 Parry, D.V 152, 166, 170 Paschalis, E.P., see Camacho, N.P 127, 147 Paschalis, E.P., see Miller, L.M 126, 134, 146 Pasini, A 86, 123 Pasini, A., see Bettuzzi, M 73, 122 Patou-Mathis, M., see Loreille, O 138, 148 Pearson, C 7, 31 Pentzien, S., see Kautek, W 167, 172 Perelli-Cippo, E., see Andreani, C 23, 37 Perera, K., see Gottlieb, P 182, 203 Perez-Arantequi, J., see Pradell, T 22–23, 36 Perilli, E., see Pasini, A 86, 123 Perlo, J 25, 38 Pernet, L., see Deschler-Erb, E 97, 123 Person, A 126, 147 Petchey, F., see Higham, T 5, 26, 39 Pétrequin, P., see Regert, M 25, 38 Petrucci, F., see Baldelli, P 15, 32 Petruska, J.A., see Hodge, A.J 154, 170 Petushkova, Y.P., see Poglazova, M.N 152, 169 Phakey, P.P., see Holden, J.L 140–141, 148, 143, 149 Philippe, M., see Loreille, O 138, 148 Piancastelli, A., see Ravaglioli, A 141, 144, 149 Pichon, L., see Bertrand, L 20, 35 Pichon, L., see Calligaro, T 19, 33, 19–20, 34 Pichon, L., see Dubus, M 20, 35 Pichon, L., see Remazeilles, C 20, 34 Picollo, M., see Bussotti, L 24, 37 Pietropaolo, A., see Andreani, C 23, 37 Piez, K.A 160, 171 Piombi, L., see Ravaglioli, A 141, 144, 149 Pirrie, D 182, 203 Pirrie, D., see Camm, G 182, 203 Pivin, J.-C., see Calligaro, T 21, 35 Plenk, H., see Fratzl, P 126, 130, 132–133, 146 Poglazova, M.N 152, 169 Author Index Poinar, H.N 133, 148 Poinar, H.N., see Cooper, A 133, 148 Poirot, J.P., see Calligaro, T 20, 34 Ponsot, B 194, 203 Poole, J.B., see Burton, D 152, 169 Poolton, N., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Popov, V.K., see Kuzumin, Y.V 48, 121 Porcinai, S., see Bacci, M 7, 31 Porod, G 129, 147 Porter, R 175, 202 Porto, E., see Castaing, J 26, 39 Posner, A.S 133, 148 Posner, A.S., see Termine, J.D 127, 147 Poulsen, D., see Cooper, M 167, 172 Poulsen, D.V., see Larsen, R 162, 171 Poulsen, D.V., see Sportun S 167, 172 Power, M.R., see Pirrie, D 182, 203 Pradell, T 22–23, 36 Pradell, T., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Pradell, T., see Salvadó, N 22–23, 36 Pradell, T., see Smith, A.D 22–23, 36 Prag, A.J.N.W., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Prag, J., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Prag, K., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Prasad, G.V.R., see Calligaro, T 21, 35 Prati, P., see Zucchiatti, A 20, 34 Pratt, W.K 67, 122 Prigodich, R.V., see Collins, M.J 126, 146 Privalov, P.L 160, 171 Prockop, D.J., see Hulmes, D.J.S 153, 170 Puchinger, L 158, 171 Puchinger, L., see Kautek, W 167, 172 Pye, E 7, 31 Quatrehomme, G 144, 149 Querré, G., see Calligaro, T 20, 34 Querzola, E., see Rossi, M 64, 122 Quette, B 16, 33 Quillet, V., see Remazeilles, C 20, 34 Quinn, F., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Radke, M., see Reiche, I 20, 34 Raistrick, A.S., see Bowes, J.H 156, 170 Rapp, G., see Fratzl, P 153–154, 170 Raspanti, M 144, 149 Rat, C., see Levillain, A 7, 31 Rattoni, B., see Bourgeois, B 16, 33 Ravaglioli, A 141, 144, 149 Ravaud, E 15, 32 Ravaud, E., see Boutaine, J.L 15, 32 Ravaud, E., see Martin, E 15, 32 Rayner, J., see Gottlieb, P 182, 203 213 Reed, R 152, 169 Reed, R., see Burton, D 152, 169 Rees-Jones, S 15, 32 Reffner, J., see Adar, F 24, 37 Regert, M 25, 38 Regert, M., see Garnier, N 25, 39 Reiche, I 126, 147 Reiche, I 20, 34, 23, 36 Remazeilles, C 20, 34 Resnick, R., see Halliday, D 127, 147 Ribarik, G., see Ungar, T 175, 177–178, 195, 202 Richard, G., see Walter, P 22–23, 35 Richard, G., see Walter, Ph 175, 177–178, 197, 202 Richwin, M., see Lengeler, B 136, 148 Richwin, M., see Snigirev, A 136, 148 Ricks, S.D., see Parry, D.V 152, 166, 170 Riederer, J., see Reiche, I 20, 34 Riekel, C., Burghammer, M 161, 171 Riekel, C., see Bigi, A 164, 171 Riekel, C., see Müller, M 22–23, 36 Riesemeier, H., see Reiche, I 20, 34 Riesemeier, R., see Illerhaus, B 51, 122 Rietveld, H.M 23, 36 Rinnerthaler, S., see Camacho, N.P 127, 147 Rizkallah, P.J., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Roberts, J.P., see Collins, M.J 126, 146 Roberts, M., see Pradell, T 22–23, 36 Roberts, M.A., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Roberts, M.A., see Burgio, L 22–23, 36 Roberts, M.A., see Müller, M 22–23, 36 Roberts, R.G 26, 39 Rocca, J.-P., see Quatrehomme, G 144, 149 Roelofs, W.G.H., see de Graaf, J.H.H 11, 32 Rogers, K.D 141, 143, 149 Rolando, C., see Garnier, N 25, 39 Rolando, C., see Regert, M 25, 38 Rolligi, M., see Kautek, W 167, 172 Romani, A., see Cataliotti, R.S 24, 37 Romani, D., see Pasini, A 86, 123 Romani, D., see Rossi, M 86, 122 Romani, D., see Bettuzzi, M 84, 122 Rook, L., see Rossi, M 86, 122 Rosa, R., see Massari, R 81, 97, 122 Roschger, P., see Fratzl, P 131, 147 Rose, J.C., see Murray, K.A 140, 148 Rosenfeld, A 67, 122 Rossi, A., Bettuzzi, M 73, 84, 122 Rossi, A., see Pasini, A 86, 123 Rossi, M 64, 69, 86, 122 Rottger, H., see Von der Hardt, P 80, 122 Rouba, B., see Targowski, P 18, 33 Roussel, B., see Adar, F 24, 37 Ruault, P.A 15, 32 Ruggeri, A., see Raspanti, M 144, 149 214 Rull, F., see Edwards, H.G.M 24, 38 Sakai, N., see Condell, R.A 156, 171 Saliege, J.-F., see Person, A 126, 147 Salomon, J., see Bertrand, L 20, 35 Salomon, J., see Bonnet, C 20, 35 Salomon, J., see Bouquillon, A 20, 35 Salomon, J., see Calligaro, T 19, 33, 19–20, 34 Salomon, J., see Calligaro, T 21, 35 Salomon, J., see Dran, J.C 19, 34 Salomon, J., see Dubus, M 20, 35 Salomon, J., see Guerra, M.F 20, 34 Salomon, J., see Ioannidou, E 20, 35 Salomon, J., see Olsson, A.M.B 20, 34 Salomon, J., see Ponsot, B 194, 203 Salomon, J., see Reiche, I 126, 147 Salomon, J., see Reiche, I 23, 36 Salomon, J., see Remazeilles, C 20, 34 Salomon, J., see Simonot, L 24, 37 Salomon, J., see Zucchiatti, A 20, 34 Salvadó, N 22–23, 36 Salvadó, N., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Santagata, A., see Lazic, V 25, 38 Scali, S., see Cattaneo, C 140, 148 Schell, A., see Needleman, H.L 194, 203 Schiraldi, A., see Fessas, D 152, 169 Schiraldi, A., see Larsen, R 162, 171 Schneberk, D., Bettuzzi, M 73, 122 Schnitger, D 16, 33 Schoeninger, M., see Shipman, P 140–141, 143, 148 Schreiber, S., see Fratzl, P 126–127, 130, 132–133, 134, 136, 146, 142, 147 Schreiner, M., see Kockelmann, W 23, 37 Schroer, C., see Lengeler, B 136, 148 Schroer, C.G., see Lengeler, B 136, 148 Schwarcz, H.P., see Wright, L.E 126, 146 Schwartz, J 194, 203 Schwenninger, J.-L., see Parker-Pearson, M 127, 147 Scopigno, R., see Bracci, S 51, 122 Scotti, M., see Baldelli, P 15, 32 Searle, J.B., see Haynes, S 133, 148 Seco, M., see Salvadó, N 22–23, 36 Segre, A.L., see Blümich, B 25, 38 Selinger, B 193, 203 Seltzer, S.M., see Hubbell, J.H 53, 123 Shackley, M.S., see Kuzumin, Y.V 48, 121 Sharma, S., see Blümich, B 25, 38 Shaw, I., see Aston, B 174, 202 Sherwood, H.F., see Bridgman, C.F 16, 33 Shipman, P 140–141, 143, 148 Shull, P.J., see Martz, Jr., H.E 52, 122, 91, 123 Siano, S 23, 36–37 Sicardy, O 16, 33 Author Index Siddall, R., see Eastaugh, N 25, 39 Sigerist, H.E 175, 202 Sillen, A 127, 147 Simionovici, A., see Bertrand, L 22, 35 Simonot, L 24, 37 Simonot, L., see Dupuis, G 24, 37 Simonot, L., see Elias, M 24, 37 Slaney, M., see Kak, A.C 83, 122 Smith, A.D 22–23, 36 Smith, A.D., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Smith, C.I., see Collins, M.J 126, 146 Smith, H., see Parker-Pearson, M 127, 147 Snigirev, A 136, 148 Snigirev, A 163, 171 Snigirev, A., see Lengeler, B 136, 148 Snigirev, A., see Somogyi, A 166, 171 Snigirev, A., see Wess, T.J 127, 131, 133, 142, 147 Snigirev, A., see Wess, T.J 158, 171 Snigireva, I., see Lengeler, B 136, 148 Snigireva, I., see Snigirev, A 136, 148 Snigireva, I., see Snigirev, A 163, 171 Sobel, H., see Hansen, E 153, 170 Sokol, R.J., see Cattaneo, C 140, 148 Somogyi, A 166, 171 Song, W.D., see Zheng, Y.W 168, 172 Spalding, T.G., see Graham, C.C 48, 121 Speller, R.D., see Farquharson, M.J 126, 147 Spencer, S., see Gottlieb, P 182, 203 Spizzichino, V., see Lazic, V 25, 38 Sportun S 167, 172 Sportun, S., see Cooper, M 167, 172 Spoto, G., see Ciliberto, E 11, 32 Stachelberger, H., see Puchinger, L 158, 171 Stankiewicz, B.A., see Poinar, H.N 133, 148 Stewart, A., see Cooper, M 167, 172 Stewart, A., see Sportun, S 167, 172 Stiner, M.C 140–141, 148 Stiner, M.C., see Surovell, T.A 127, 147 Stinson, R.H 153, 170 Stos-Gale, Z.A 176, 202 Strange, R.W., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Strzelczyk, A.B 152, 155, 169 Stuart-Smith, S., see Miller, A.G 179, 199, 202 Stuke, M., see Menu, M 18, 33 Surovell, T.A 127, 147 Sutherland, D., see Gottlieb, P 182, 203 Sutherland, H.H., see Hardy, A.D 198, 203 Suthers, S., see Gottlieb, P 182, 203 Svetlichnaya, T.P., see Poglazova, M.N 152, 169 Sweeny, P.R., see Stinson, R.H 153, 170 Sykes, B.C., see Colson, I.B 133, 147 Sykes, B.C., see Troy, C.S 138–139, 148 Author Index 215 Taberlet, P., see Loreille, O 138, 148 Taccani Gilardoni, M., see Gilardoni, A 15, 32 Taccani, S., see Gilardoni, A 15, 32 Takami, M 24, 37 Talabot, J., see Walter, P 22–23, 35 Talabot, J., see Walter, Ph 175, 177–178, 197, 202 Tang, C.C., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Targowski, P 18, 33 Tarrocchi, M., see Andreani, C 23, 37 Taylor, G., see Parker-Pearson, M 127, 147 Tengberg, M., see Moulherat, C 15, 32 Tenni, R., see Fessas, D 152, 169 Terayama, Y., see Matsushima, N 127, 130, 147 Termine, J.D 127, 147 Tétrault, J 7, 31 Thomas, J.J 129, 147 Thomassin, J.H., see Bonnet, C 20, 35 Thomassin, J.H., see Chaulet, D 20, 35 Thompson, G 7, 31 Thompson, T.J.U 141, 149 Thompson, T.J.U., see Hiller, J.C 127, 143–144, 147 Tiktopoulo, E.I., see Privalov, P.L 160, 171 Tobin, M.J., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Tornari, V 18, 33 Townsend, J.H 9, 31 Traub, W., see Weiner, S 126, 146 Traub, W., see Weiner, S 156, 157, 158, 168, 170 Traum, R., see Kockelmann, W 23, 37 Troy, C.S 138–139, 148 Tsoucaris, G., see Bertrand, L 22, 35 Tsoucaris, G., see Martinetto, P 22–23, 35, 175, 178, 197, 202 Tsoucaris, G., see Walter, P 22–23, 35 Tsoucaris, G., see Walter, Ph 175, 177–178, 197, 202 Tummler, J., see Lengeler, B 136, 148 Tuniz, C 5, 26, 39 Turner-Walker, G., see Collins, M.J 126, 146 Turrel,S., see Bonnet, C 20, 35 Van Hooydonk, G 24, 38 Van Hooydonk, G., see de Reu, M 24, 38 Van Hooydonk, G., see Vandenabeele, P 24, 38 Van Hooydonk, G., see Wehling, B 24, 37 Van Hugten, H 15, 32 Vandenabeele, L., see de Reu, M 24, 38 Vandenabeele, L., see Edwards, H.G.M 24, 38 Vandenabeele, L., see Wehling, B 24, 37 Vandenabeele, P 24, 38 Vandiver, P., see Menu, M 18, 33 Vartanian, E., see Bouquillon, A 20, 34 Vekemans, B 166, 172 Vekemans, B., see Somogyi, A 166, 171 Vendrell, M., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Vendrell, M., see Pradell, T 22–23, 36 Vendrell, M., see Smith, A.D 22–23, 36 Vendrell-Saz, M., see Salvadó, N 22–23, 36 Vercauteren, M., see Colson, I.B 133, 147 Verpoort, F., see Vandenabeele, P 24, 38 Vest, M., see Cooper, M 167, 172 Vest, M., see Kennedy, C.J 159, 164, 167–168, 171 Vest, M., see Larsen, R 160, 162, 171 Vest, M., see Sportun S 167, 172 Vigears, D 14, 32 Vignaud, C., see Reiche, I 23, 36 Vincze, L., see Somogyi, A 166, 171 Vincze, L., see Vekemans, B 166, 172 Vitellaro Zuccarello, L., see Fessas, D 152, 169 Vnoucek, J., see Larsen, R 162, 171 Vogl, G., see Fratzl, P 126, 130, 132–133, 146 Vogt, J.R., see Graham, C.C 48, 121 Von der Hardt, P 80, 122 von Bohlen A., see Wehling, B 24, 37 von Bohlen, A., see de Reu, M 24, 38 von Bohlen, A., see Devos, W 19, 33 von Bohlen, A., see Klockenkämper, R 19, 33 von Bohlen, A., see Moens, L 19, 33 von Hippel, P.H., see Harrington, W.F 156, 170 Vontobel, P., see Deschler-Erb, E 97, 123 Ungar, T 175, 177–178, 195, 202 Wachtel, E 127, 129, 147 Walker, J., see Halliday, D 127, 147 Walsh, V., see Eastaugh, N 25, 39 Walter, P 22– 23, 35 Walter, P., see Bertrand, L 20, 35 Walter, P., see Bertrand, L 22, 35 Walter, P., see Bouquillon, A 20, 35 Walter, P., see Calligaro, T 19, 33, 19–20, 34 Walter, P., see Calligaro, T 21, 35 Walter, P., see Dubus, M 20, 35 Walter, P., see Ioannidou, E 20, 35 Walter, P., see Martinetto, P 22–23, 35 Walter, Ph 175, 177–178, 197, 202 Vaccari, M.G., see Zucchiatti, A 20, 34 Vacher, S., see Regert, M 25, 38 Vairavamurthy, V., see Miller, L.M 126, 134, 146 Vaishnav, R., see Hardy, A.D 198, 201, 203 Valenta, A., see Fratzl, P 131, 147 Van Aelst, J., see Van Hooydonk, G 24, 38 Van Asperen de Boer, J.R.J 15, 32 van Bommel, M., de Graaf, J.H.H 11, 32 Van Espen, P., see Vekemans, B 166, 172 Van Grieken, R., see Janssens, K 11, 32 216 Walter, Ph., see Martinetto, P 175, 178, 197, 202 Walter, Ph., see Ponsot, B 194, 203 Walter, Ph., see Ungar, T 175, 177–178, 195, 202 Walton, R.I., see Hardy, A.D 201, 203 Wang, X.S., see Bada, J.L 133, 148 Ward, A.G., see Kenchington, A.W 156, 171 Wehling, B 24, 37 Wehlte, K 15, 32 Weiner, S 126, 134, 146, 156–158, 168, 170 Weiner, S., see Karkanas, P 134, 148 Weiner, S., see Stiner, M.C 140–141, 148 Weiner, S., see Wachtel, E 127, 129, 147 Wenk, H.-R 126, 146 Wess, T 126, 130–131, 135–136, 146, 146, 154, 170, 158, 163, 171 Wess, T., see Parker-Pearson, M 127, 147 Wess, T.J 127, 131, 133, 142, 147, 154, 170, 158, 163, 171 Wess, T.J., see Collins, M.J 126, 146 Wess, T.J., see Gorham, S.D 162, 171 Wess, T.J., see Hiller, J.C 127, 140, 143–144, 147 Wess, T.J., see Hulmes, D.J.S 153, 170 Wess, T.J., see Kennedy, C.J 153, 170, 159, 164, 167–168, 171 Wess, T.J., see Larsen, R 162, 171 Wess, T.J., see Orgel, J.P 154, 170 Whitley, A., see Adar, F 24, 37 Wilde, J 15, 32 Wilkie, G., see Gottlieb, P 182, 203 Willins, M.J., see Gorham, S.D 162, 171 Winter, H., see Opitz-Coutureau, J 20, 34 Wintz, P., see Gonzalez, R.C 67–68, 122 Wojtkowski, M., see Targowski, P 18, 33 Wolters, C 15, 32 Woo, S.L.-Y 153, 170 Author Index Woods, R.E 62, 122 Woods, R.E., see Gonzalez, R.C 67–68, 122 Worthing, M.A., see Hardy, A.D 198, 203 Wouters, J., see Wess, T.J 127, 131, 133, 142, 147 Wouters, J., see Wess, T.J 158, 171 Wright, L.E 126, 146 Wuelfert, S 7, 31 Wyeth, P., see Garside, P 24, 37 Wyeth, P., see Takami, M 24, 37 Wyman, D.R., see Harms, A.A 109, 123 Yamaguchi, S., see Okazaki, M 133, 139, 148 Yngvason, H 7, 31 Yoshida, Y., see Okazaki, M 133, 139, 148 Zachariah, C., see Haddadin, M.A 192, 203 Zafiropulos, V., see Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki, P 25, 38 Zafiropulos, V., see Tornari, V 18, 33 Zama, G., see Ravaglioli, A 141, 144, 149 Zanarini, M., see Rossi, M 64, 122 Zeitoun, V., see Person, A 126, 147 Zheng, Y.W 168, 172 Zhilin, M., see Pantos, E 22–23, 36 Ziesche, E., see Schnitger, D 16, 33 Zink, A., see Bouquillon, A 20, 34 Zink, A., see Castaing, J 26, 39 Zizak, I., see Fratzl, P 153–154, 170 Zobelli, A., see Simonot, L 24, 37 Zoppi, M., see Siano, S 23, 37 Zoppi, M., see Tuniz, C 5, 26, 39 Zucchiatti, A 20, 34 Zucchiatti, A., see Bouquillon, A 20, 34 Subject Index Analytical techniques artefacts, 18 activation analysis 22 charged particle analysis 22 CNRS-Orléans cyclotron 22 neutron activation 22 prompt gamma analysis 22 atomic emission spectrometry 12, 23 ICP-AES equipment 23 carbon-14 dating 26 dating 26 dendrochronology 26 electron magnetic spin resonance (ESR) 26 gas chromatography 25 infrared spectrometry 24 ion beam analysis (IBA) 19–20 AGLAE 10, 19 C2RMF 19 COSTG1 19 ERDA 21 nuclear reactions 20 PIXE 20–21 Rutherford backscattering (RBS) 12, 20 secondary X-ray fluorescence (PIXE)2 20 ionising radiation techniques 18 laser-induced spectrometric techniques, types 25 lead isotopic composition 26 neutron diffraction 23 neutron spallation source 23 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging 25 Rietveld technique 23 spectro-photo colorimetry 23 examination modes 24 synchrotron radiation characterization 22–23 thermoluminescence dating 26 X-ray diffraction (XRD) 23 X-ray spectroscopy techniques 18 X-ray fluorescence analysis 19–20 European CORDIS website 19 Angelo Guarino Artefact materials conservator/restorer assistance creative process determination dating 5, 26 nature determination preventive conservation 6–7 materials parameters previous modification/restoration diagnosis suffered alteration process evaluation Atomic lattice 127 Beam hardening effect 55 Beni Culturali 3, Biomolecular preservation 28, 126, 133 archaeological bone 133–134, 136–138, 140, 146 biogenic crystal structure 134 carbonated apatite 134 crystallite thickness 133 hydroxyapatite surfaces 133 NanoSTAR 133 Pleistocene cave bear 134 stable mineral elements 134 Bone diagenesis 126 bioapatite crystallites 126 Burning and cremation, detection 140 biogenic composition 140 cortical bone 141 crystal thickness 141 diagenetic effects 140 mature faunal bone, mature 142 microstructure 141 needle morphology 143 paleoanthropological puzzles 140 polydisperse morphology 142–144 thickness-corrected plots 143–144 XRD 145 217 218 CCD-based systems 117 fiber-optic scintillator (FOS) 120 scintillator materials 119 scintillating screen 118 CCD camera 120 CCD camera sensitivity 120–121 Computed tomography (CT) 82 Allan Cormack 82 general considerations 82 Geoffrey Hounsfield 82 Computed tomography (CT), experimental acquisition 86 microtomography 86–87 cone beam geometry 86 linear detector 86 micro-CT 87, 88, 90 EBCCD, CT system with 87 egyptian mummified cat, CT 89–90 human femur CT 88 intensified camera 89 medium-high energy system 89 medium-size CT systems 87 roman bronze statue, head of 91 large globe in Palazzo Vecchio, CT 91–94, 96 Computed tomography systems, types 82 cone beam tomography 85 FDK algorithm 86 first generation CT system 82–83 medical CT 85 second generation CT system 84 third generation CT system 84–85 Conservation science Convolution, two functions 107 convolution theorem 107 COST G1 COST G7 COST G8 Crystalline hydroxyapatite 143 Crystallites, bone 127, 129–132, 134, 136–141, 145, 146 two-dimensional mapping 136 Haversian canal 137 histological staining 140 microfocus analysis 140 microniches 138–140, 145–146 molecular hybridization 140 Crystal lattice 127–128, 133–134, 145 Cultural heritage artefacts study, main techniques 11 infrared spectrometry 11, 13, 24 portable energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence technique 13 Raman spectrometry 12, 24 Labs TECH survey 13 Subject Index Detection systems 118 general consideration 116 flat panels 116 characteristics 117 Digital imaging, X-rays 55 aliasing effect 58 analogical detectors 56 Beer’s Law 55 clay bust, histogram of 60 different images, histogram of 61 contrast enhancement 62 digital image histogram of 59 frame summing 64 histogram equalization 62–63 image digitizing 56 analogue signal digitizing scheme 56 analogue to digital converter (ADC) 56 pixel (PICture ELement) 56 image enhancement 59 Nyquist or Shannon sampling theorem 57 periodical signal 57 spatial resolution 57 pixel binning 66 radiographic film 56 salt and pepper noise image 65 segmentation 64 spatial filters 66 enhancement 67 FFT algorithm (Fast Fourier Transform) 68 Fourier-Transform-based filtering 68 smoothing 67 test digital image 59 Digital radiographs, experimental acquisition of 74 FO fan 74 affected image 75 cleaned image 76 geometry transducer 74 patterns 75 linear array acquisition 74 linear detector 74, 76 linen weft identification 76 planar detector acquisition 76 digital radiography (DR) and computed tomography (CT) system 78 Roman statue, X-ray 79 Eco-museums Egyptian eye cosmetics/kohls 173 black eye-paint 174, 179, 199 blue eye cosmetic 175, 193 composition 176 green eye-paint 174, 179 Subject Index Ithmid 179 lead compounds 175, 187 lead isotopic analysis (LIA) 176 lead toxicology 194–195 Electromagnetic radiation 43 applications 44–45 particle beams 44 ultrasound and sonic waves 44 Electron density 127, 129 EnCoRE Estruscan bronze fibula, CT of 64–65 Examination techniques, artefacts 14 non-destructive techniques 18 optical microscopy 14 photography 14 radiography 15 autoradiography 18 Beer’s law 15 beta radiography 16 electron emission radiograph 16 gamma radiography 16 laminography 16 neutron radiography 18 tomodensimetry 18 X-ray radiography 15 episcopal cross, radiograph 17 scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 14 microanalysis equipment characteristics 14 visual examination 14 EU-ARTECH 10 ACCESS activity, oppurtunities 10 international workshops 10 European networks 8–9 Filter function H(u,v) shapes 106 Fine Arts museums Fourier series 68, 99 Euler’s formula 99 fundamental harmonic 100 noise 100 noise-affected sinusoidal signal 99 Fourier Transforms, one-dimensional, two-dimensional, 101–106 Fourier-transform infrared spectra (FTIR) 126–127, 133–134, 141 frequency domain filtering 106 Good geometry 53 diffused radiation 54 neutron microscopic total cross section 54 photons, interaction of 54 219 radiation beam, pre-collimation and post-collimation of 55 X-ray mass attenuation coefficient for 53 Institutions and networks, conservation science 7–11 national institutions national networks Progetto finalizzato Beni Culturali, subprojects 7–8 ChimArt Kohl samples, origins/compositions comparison 192 Labs TECH 9–11, 13 Laser-cleaned parchment 166 Guinier’s law 168 Lorentzian distributions 169 microfocus X-ray diffraction 168 sample preparation 167 laser cleaning 167 Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) 167 Microfocus infrared spectroscopy 126 Microfocus SAXS 135–136 aqueous irrigation 136 concentric lamellae 137 European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) 136 human bone mesh images (MHS1)137 osteological features 136 samples 138–139 Modern-day Egypt kohl samples 179–180, 184–185 analysis results 183 analytical techniques 181 XRD 181 2000 JCPDS database 181 X-ray microanalyser 181 LVSEM (low vacuum SEM) 181 quantitative scanning electron microscopy (QEMSCAN) 182 particle mineralogical analysis (PMA) 182–183 particle size 186, 194, 195 anecdotal evidence 179 materials and methods 180 traditional recipe 179 usage 179 220 Modulation transfer function (MTF) 71– 73, 108, 112–116, 118 line-pair gauge 72 X-ray radiograph 73 MTF, example of 72 edge spread function (ESF) 108 full width at half maximum (FWHM) 110–111 general definition 114 line spread function 109 linear system MTF, measurement of 113 Lorentzian function 109 noise-affected ESF 112 optical transfer function 113 point spread function 110 step function 108 Museum laboratory Friedrich Rathgen Nanotextural variation 137, 139–140 National cultural heritage institutions 27 Neutron planar detectors 81 Neutron radiation digital imaging 80 general considerations 80 mass attenuation coefficients 80 Neutron tomography 97 neutron DR and CT 98 ancient amulet (cat) 98 small helmet 98 Organic preservation, prediction of 135 collagenous component 127, 135 lattice perfection indices 135 Parchment 152 history 152 collagen structure 152–155, 162 polypeptide chains 154, 156 triple helix 154, 156 Hodge–Petruska model 154 degradation 155–156 oxidation 155 deamination 155 chemical structures gelatinization 155–156 hydrolysis 155–156 analytical techniques 157 biochemical and thermal analysis 159 image of collagen 159 charge-coupled devices (CCDs) 158 DIAMOND 158 differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) 160 Subject Index interactions, molecule–molecule 157 linear profiles, area of 160 meridional reflections 159 meridional series 159 SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) 160–163 SAXS 158, 161, 163 wide angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) 157 XRD 157 analysis results 161 ratio 161 crystallinity 160–161 denaturation temperature 160–161 shrinkage temperature 160–161 Parchment cross sections, surface to surface analysis of 163 beamline ID18F 164 schematic layout 164 fluorescence detector 166 FWHM 165 microfocus X-ray diffraction 163 microfocus X-ray fluorescence 166 non-collagenous components 165 X-ray fluorescence profiles 164 Particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) 44, 126 Pharaonic Egypt kohl samples 182 analysis results 187, 189–191 composition comparisons 192–194 container/package, written information on 196 egyptian alabaster 196–197 hieroglyphs 196 content formulas 197 manufacturing procedures 195 pots image 196 QEMSCAN results 200–201 SEM/TEM particle sizes 195 Radiation and matter, interaction of 52–53 Beer-Lambert’s Law 52 Radiation sources 44 gamma rays 47 neutrons 48 neutron activation analysis (NAA) 48 X-rays 44 bremsstrahlung radiation 46 linear accelerators (LINAC) 50–51, 91, 97–98, 114, 118 microfocus tubes 50 nanofocus tubes 50 source unsharpness 49 synchrotrons 51 X-ray tube 49 Subject Index Radiography, problems and solutions 29, 30 Radioisotope sources 51–52 advantages 51 characteristics 52 disadvantages 51 Science and technology and Cultural heritage 28 publications of interest 29 websites of interest 28 SAXS 127, 131, 133–136, 139, 141, 144–146, 158–161, 163, 167–168 Bragg’s Law 127 crystallite thickness 127, 130, 132 I(q).q2 versus q, plots 130 Lorentzian distribution 130–131 needle-like crystallites, curves 132 plate-like crystallites, curves 132 polydisperse crystallites 130 Porod’s Law 129 scattering vectors 128 diagram 129 Synchrotron radiation 169 Venus Genitrix (Louvre Museum), radiograph 16 221 Wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) 141–142, 145, 146 X- and γ ray detectors 68 bidimensional geometry (planar detector) 71 acquisition system, cone beam 71 detection systems, geometry of 69 families 68 CCD 68 complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) 69, 71, 86, 116 electron bombarded CCD (EBCCD) 69 flat panel 69, 71, 86–87, 116–117 gas-filled detectors 68 image intensifiers 69 scintillation detectors 68 semiconductor detectors 69 linear geometry (linear array) 70 acquisition system, fan beam 70 single detector (point geometry) 69–70, 83–84 acquisition system, pencil-beam 70 X-rays and neutrons, induced activation 97 XRD 123, 126, 141, 145–146 This Page Intentionally Left Blank ... 12 1 12 1 12 5 12 6 13 3 13 6 14 0 14 5 14 6 15 1 15 2 15 7 16 1 16 3 16 6 16 9 16 9 Chapter Egyptian Eye Cosmetics (“Kohls”): Past and Present Andrew D Hardy, R.I Walton, R Vaishnav, K.A Myers and M.R Power and. .. processes [10 8 ,10 9], study of the glazing technique of Renaissance terracotta statues [11 0? ?11 2] or lustre ceramics [11 3? ?11 5], study of the lixiviation process of buried lead glasses [11 6 ,11 7], and so... founded in 19 97 with the main objective of promoting research and education in the field of cultural heritage, based on the directions and recommendations given in the Professional Guidelines of the