Pathways into teaching for Overseas Trained Teachers (OTTs)
Registration bodies
From 2001 to 2012, eight Australian states and territories created Institutes or Colleges of Teachers to manage teacher accreditation and recognition based on professional standards These institutions aimed to enhance the quality of teacher training and ongoing professional development Additionally, the Australian Institute of Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) was established as a national body to support these efforts.
In 2011, all Ministers of Education endorsed a nationally consistent approach to teacher education, which established essential English language proficiency requirements, mutual recognition agreements, necessary qualifications, and defined initial and fixed registration periods.
Overseas trained teachers must now apply to the relevant state registration authority across Australia and New
Zealand Assessment of qualifications is then done relying on the Country Education Profiles (AEI 2013)
In Australia, professional requirements for teachers vary by state In Western Australia, overseas trained teachers can initially obtain only "non-practising teacher registration" due to their inability to demonstrate knowledge of the Australian curriculum and other necessary competencies After completing a minimum of 80 teaching days, they may apply for full registration In contrast, Victoria mandates 55 days of supervised practicum for teacher registration Prior to 2013, the New South Wales Department had different regulations in place.
Education and Communities (DEC), previously known as DET, mandates a pre-employment course, a school practicum, and a suitability interview for prospective teachers In Queensland, candidates must complete a specified amount of recent teaching practice and engage in professional development Some education systems offer flexibility for undertaking casual work at various stages of the hiring process However, there is a lack of information regarding professional assessment in other educational systems.
English language requirements
Since 2010, the English language tests and levels required for registration have become more standardised
All systems, except New Zealand, require that teachers without all four years of tertiary qualifications completed in English in one of the designated countries where
English is an official language must sit for an English language proficiency test
IELTS scores are accepted by New Zealand and all
Australian states, territories and systems apart from
NSW DEC Australian states and territories now require a minimum of 8 on Speaking and Listening subtests and
7 on Reading and Writing The New Zealand Teachers’
Council accepts a minimum of 7 on all subtests of
The International Second language Proficiency Rating
Scale (ISLPR) is available across Australia and New
In New Zealand, a level of 4 is recognized by all states and territories, with the exception of NSW DEC The ISLPR is supported by a research foundation, as evidenced by studies conducted by Ingram (2003, 2007) and Wylie (1997), which explore various aspects of its validity and reliability.
The Professional English Assessment Test (PEAT) was designed by the University of NSW Institute of
Languages (UNSWIL) for the NSW DET There is little available research on the test (Murray & Cross 2009;
Murray, Riazi & Cross 2012) A level of A on speaking, listening, reading and writing subtests is accepted by
NSW DEC and other systems across Australia and
New Zealand (with some qualifications), but the limited availability of the test is one shortcoming (Merrifield
The New Zealand Teachers’ Council also accepts the
Cambridge CAE Grade B and CPE Pass
Employers of Online Teaching Tutors (OTTs) who excel in IELTS should recognize that no single test evaluates all aspects of language competence, highlighting the need for ongoing language support As technology evolves, it may influence the competencies required for teachers, potentially outpacing current testing methods To explore this issue and gather stakeholder perceptions regarding the relevance of benchmarks, specific research questions were developed.
Research question 1 : How do principals describe and evaluate their experience of working with OTTs who have entered employment through (a) an IELTS score of
7 or above, and/or (b) other entry pathways?
Research question 2 examines the speaking and writing IELTS scores that school principals consider indicative of the professional language proficiency required for teachers in primary and secondary schools across Australia and New Zealand.
Research question 3 explores the genres of spoken and written discourse that school principals deem essential for effective functioning in the educational workplace It also examines how these perceptions have evolved in recent years due to technological advancements and other changes Understanding these genres is crucial for adapting communication strategies within schools to enhance collaboration and efficiency among staff.
This study aims to explore school principals' perceptions of teachers who have entered the profession through IELTS or other English language proficiency tests, examining how evolving language demands in education may influence these views The research will review existing literature on overseas-trained teachers and their pathways into the teaching profession It will investigate the relationship between English Language Proficiency (ELP) and professional skills, focusing on how these factors interact Additionally, the review will address the changing language requirements in teaching and the various methods for effectively assessing these demands.
The mobility of teachers across national borders is a growing feature of global society (Birrell, Dobson, Rapson & Smith 2006; OECD 2011; Penson &
Yonemura 2012) Present and projected teacher shortages in OECD countries, as well as the desire and ability of teachers to travel and gain international experience, are contributing to this trend
This increasing movement of teachers has been accompanied by an expanding body of research in
Schmidt 2010; Schmidt & Block 2010; Schmidt, Young,
& Mandzuk, 2010), the UK (McNamara, Lewis &
Howson 2007; Maylor, Hutchings, James, Menter &
Smart 2006; Miller 2008c; Miller, Ochs & Mulvaney
2002), Europe (Boyd 2003; Grantham, McCarthy & Pegg
2007) and Australia (Collins & Reid 2012; Guo & Singh
In the past decade, over 120 scholarly works, including books, journal articles, reports, and studies, have emerged, shifting from descriptive case studies of specific programs and teachers to a robust exploration of broader themes This evolving body of research now emphasizes both qualitative and quantitative analyses, particularly focusing on the effects of teacher mobility on the countries experiencing emigration.
Khoo 2012; Penson & Yonemura 2012; Miller, Ochs &
This section reviews key theoretical concepts related to language competence, ability, and proficiency, focusing on their operationalization in language assessment and practical applications It also explores theoretical approaches to genre and examines research on the assessment of English proficiency among teachers and other professionals.
Language competence, ability and proficiency: Theoretical frameworks and models
proficiency: Theoretical frameworks and models
Language proficiency is an abstract psychological concept that can be assessed through performance on specific tasks, making it measurable Valid inferences about an individual's language skills can be drawn from their test performance, as highlighted by Bachman & Palmer (1996) and Hulstijn (2006) However, the accuracy of these conclusions relies on a thorough modeling and definition of the underlying construct of language competence, alongside the effective design of assessment tasks, as emphasized by McNamara (1996).
Several models have shaped the understanding of proficiency, ability, and communicative competence This section will highlight key influential models in this area.
The foundational components of communicative competence, as established by Canale and Swain (1980) and further developed by Canale (1983), were initially intended for educational purposes in teaching and assessment Despite critiques of being "static" (Bachman 1990), these concepts have significantly influenced the creation of assessment tools Canale and Swain differentiate between communicative competence, which encompasses the interplay of grammatical and sociolinguistic knowledge, and communicative performance, which refers to the actual application of these competencies in producing and understanding language within specific psychological contexts (1980, p 6).
Communicative competence refers to the understanding of fundamental grammatical rules, the application of language in social contexts for effective communication, and the ability to combine utterances according to discourse principles It is important to note that communicative competence is a subcomponent of a broader language competence framework, while communicative performance represents one aspect of general language performance.
The Common European Framework (CEF) outlines the impact of its model by categorizing communicative competences into three key areas: language competences, sociolinguistic competences, and pragmatic competences, which encompass discourse and functional skills Notably, strategic competence is not included in this framework (COE Policy Unit 2001).
The 1983 framework identifies four key components of communicative competence: linguistic, sociolinguistic, strategic, and discourse competence While the authors outline these elements, they do not delve into their interactions This foundational work was subsequently expanded upon by Bachman.
In 1990, Bachman proposed an extended model that integrates Canale and Swain's competencies, emphasizing their role in language use within specific contexts He introduced the term "communicative language ability," merging the concepts of "communicative competence" and "language proficiency." This framework aims to illustrate the interactions among various components of language ability and the context in which language is utilized.
It was extended again by Bachman and Palmer (1996)
Bachman and Palmer's amended model, introduced in 1996, conceptualizes language ability as comprising both knowledge—encompassing organizational and pragmatic aspects—and competence, which is strategic in nature They clarify that this model serves not as a representation of language processing, but as a conceptual framework to guide the test development process.
Figure 1: Model of language ability (Bachman & Palmer 1996)
The term "proficiency" is predominantly used in test development literature, with a notable exception in Chapelle's work, which contributes to theoretical model building.
Grabe and Berns (1997) detail the development of a model by the committee of examiners (COE) for the TOEFL academic test, aiming to represent the language processing that occurs during its use.
“communicative language proficiency” It resulted in
The COE model serves as a framework for defining communicative proficiency specifically in academic contexts This model aims to outline the essential types of information necessary for constructing a comprehensive definition of communicative proficiency.
(for language proficiency) and a starting point for the test developer to compose such a definition” (1997, p 30)
The COE model favours an integrated approach to test design Language proficiency is conceptualised as consisting of strategies and processes and described as
“consisting of components, however the components are hypothesised to work together in communicative language performance” (1997, p 33)
Context, defined as “the environment of a text”, has a prominent role in this model, and is based on Hymes’
In 1972, the "SPEAKING" categories were introduced, highlighting the "Situation" aspects that influence language use, including setting, participant, task, text, and topic Additionally, "Performance," which refers to the linguistic or behavioral output, is an essential component of context, reflecting the contributions made by the language user.
The COE model’s view of language competence is
Grammatical competence encompasses various types of knowledge, including phonological, orthographic, morphological, lexical, structural, and semantic aspects, which involve understanding word order and possible structures Discourse competence pertains to a language user's ability to sequence and organize language effectively beyond the sentence level Additionally, sociolinguistic competence involves awareness of language functions and variations, highlighting the importance of context in communication.
The new model distinguishes itself from earlier versions by incorporating world knowledge, which encompasses the information gained from past learning and life experiences This integration suggests that world knowledge collaborates with language competence to enhance language comprehension and production in context Additionally, the model emphasizes a psycholinguistic cognitive approach, highlighting the significance of internal processing outputs The implications for testing are examined, underscoring the critical role of context in language assessment.
In his detailed exploration of IELTS's evolution, Alan Davies (2008) highlights the influences shaping the current test and traces its lineage from earlier assessments like the structural English Proficiency Test Battery (EPTB) and the communicative ELTS He characterizes proficiency in academic English as the capacity to effectively engage with the language specific to the field and to execute the relevant discourse appropriately.
Operationalising language proficiency in IELTS tasks and assessment criteria
The speaking task
Four equally weighted criteria are used to assess the speaking task
Fluency and coherence are essential components of effective communication, encompassing the ability to speak with natural continuity, appropriate pace, and minimal effort Key indicators of fluency include speech rate and continuity, while coherence is demonstrated through logical sentence sequencing, clear transitions in discussions or narratives, and the use of cohesive devices such as connectors, pronouns, and conjunctions.
Lexical Resource encompasses the diversity of vocabulary a candidate employs and the accuracy in conveying meanings and sentiments Key indicators include the variety of words chosen, their suitability and relevance, as well as the candidate's skill in circumlocution—effectively navigating vocabulary gaps through alternative phrasing, whether or not accompanied by noticeable hesitation.
Grammatical Range and Accuracy evaluates a candidate's ability to use a variety of grammatical structures correctly and effectively Key indicators of grammatical range include the complexity and length of spoken sentences, the use of subordinate clauses, and the diversity of sentence structures, particularly in terms of information focus In contrast, grammatical accuracy is measured by the frequency of errors in speech and the impact those errors have on communication.
Pronunciation is the skill of articulating speech clearly to meet speaking test standards Important factors include the listener's strain, the level of unintelligible speech, and the noticeable influence of the speaker's first language (L1).
The writing task
There are also four criteria for the assessment of the writing task
Examiners award a band score for each of four criterion areas: Task Achievement (for Task 1), Task Response
(for Task 2), Coherence and Cohesion, Lexical Resource and Grammatical Range and Accuracy The four criteria are equally weighted although Task 2 responses are weighted more highly (See ‘IELTS Writing Band
Descriptors: Task 1’ and ‘IELTS Writing Band
This criterion assesses how appropriately, accurately and relevantly the response fulfils the requirements set out in the task, using the minimum of 150 words Academic
Writing Task 1 involves a specific input and a largely expected output, focusing on information transfer This task is centered on the factual details presented in the input data or diagram, avoiding any speculative interpretations beyond what is provided.
Coherence and cohesion are essential for ensuring clarity and fluency in communication Coherence involves logically sequencing ideas to create a clear message, while cohesion focuses on the effective use of cohesive devices, such as logical connectors, pronouns, and conjunctions, to clarify relationships within and between sentences Together, these elements enhance the organization and connection of information, making the overall response more understandable.
Lexical Resource: This criterion refers to the range of vocabulary the candidate has used and the accuracy and appropriacy of that use in terms of the specific task
Grammatical Range and Accuracy: This criterion refers to the range and accurate use of the candidate’s grammatical resource as manifested in the candidate’s writing at the sentence level
In both Academic and General Training Writing tests,
Task 2 requires candidates to formulate and develop a position in relation to a given prompt in the form of a question or statement Ideas should be supported by evidence, and examples may be drawn from the candidates’ own experience Responses must be at least
The other criteria for assessment of Task 1 and 2 are identical
Davies emphasizes that the interpretive framework for a test includes an argument that connects scores to decisions based on those scores, indicating that the language sample used in the test serves as a validation of the assessment.
The IELTS assessment framework identifies specific elements as measurable indicators of language proficiency, which serve as the foundation for this study's conceptualization of language proficiency Furthermore, as we will explore concerning our second research question, it is anticipated that certain aspects of communicative competence may not be directly quantifiable by an assessment tool aimed at evaluating readiness for academic study.
Genre
This report focuses on the concept of genre, particularly in relation to research questions 1 and 3 Due to the varying interpretations of the term in both technical and lay contexts, as well as its overlap with "text type" in educational settings, we will clarify the meanings and applications of the term "genre."
The term "genre," derived from the French and Latin words meaning "kind," "type," or "class," is commonly employed across various fields such as rhetoric, film, advertising, literary and media theory, and linguistics It refers to a specific type of "text" and serves a primarily typological function.
Schooling in Australia has been significantly shaped by the genre approach developed by Sydney linguists and educators like Martin and Derewianka This approach is often described as a “staged, goal-oriented social process,” highlighting its purpose-driven nature and the various ways texts can be structured In educational settings, this framework aims to support learners through scaffolding, as proposed by Vygotsky, enhancing their understanding of genre and its applications in writing.
The main text types or genres taught in Australian schools, generally implementing this type of “curriculum cycle approach”, include Recount, Procedure or
The curriculum cycle, as discussed by Callaghan and Knapp (1993), aims to enhance student awareness of the social purposes, text structures, and language features associated with various text types or genres This pedagogical approach incorporates modeling, joint negotiation, and independent construction, emphasizing the interchangeable use of the terms "text types" and "genres."
Genre distinctions often fail to accurately reflect the functional aspects of English texts Trosbor (1997) argues for a clear differentiation between genres and text types, as texts within the same genre can exhibit significant linguistic variation For instance, newspaper articles may vary from narrative and colloquial styles to more informational and elaborate forms Conversely, different genres can share similar linguistic features, as seen in some newspaper and magazine articles Thus, the connection between text types and genres is complex and not easily defined.
Bhatia (1993) emphasizes that the primary objective of genre identification is to understand the reasons behind their specific forms, highlighting the dynamic and cross-cultural aspects of genres as social processes Paltridge (1997) notes that various approaches to genre may differentiate themselves by focusing on social situatedness and the reliance on interpretation by community members Essentially, genres thrive within the shared understandings of individuals in a common life context.
The significance of communicative purpose and move-structure in specific genres is emphasized by Bhatia, Paltridge, Martin, and others Genres vary in external format and usage contexts, and they are characterized by both systematic linguistic and non-linguistic criteria.
Text types can be categorized based on cognitive and linguistic criteria, including narration, evaluation, and description While genre pertains to completed texts and their communicative functions, text types represent characteristics of a text that transcend specific genres.
Text types may be fictional (made up) or factual
(information reports) Text types are used for different purposes and usually follow a different style or structure
Section 5 provides a more detailed explanation of how we have used the term and the reasons for these choices.
Gaining entry to teaching: Research evidence on overseas trained teachers (OTTs)
Assessment of qualifications
Numerous studies highlight the challenges faced in the evaluation process and the time required to assess teaching qualifications (Collins & Reid, 2012; Guo & Singh, 2009; Inglis & Philips, 1995) Teachers trained abroad frequently discover that they must enhance their qualifications, despite these credentials being recognized for immigration purposes (Guo & Singh, 2009).
The evaluation of qualifications is constrained by rigid guidelines that often do not account for discrepancies in educational systems, particularly regarding middle school or early childhood educators Many employer organizations struggle to effectively interpret AEI guidelines, leaving teachers with limited options to address perceived deficiencies in their qualifications when seeking recognition in a new country.
Professional knowledge and experience
Teachers often emphasize the importance of local knowledge in their professional development, ranking it as a significant need according to Guo and Singh’s study, where it accounted for 15.32% of the concerns Conversely, the absence of local teaching experience and knowledge is identified as a barrier that prevents many teachers from securing teaching positions in local schools, even for last-minute casual roles (Guo & Singh, 2009).
Numerous studies indicate a preference among employers for local candidates or teachers from English-speaking backgrounds (Inglis & Philips 1995; Iredale & Fox 1997) Overseas-trained teachers (OTTs) express concerns about their ability to find employment that matches their qualifications and experience, despite meeting teaching requirements (Walsh & Brigham 2007, p 2) Many OTTs feel that this system undermines their advanced qualifications and skills (Guo & Singh 2009).
Miller (2008a) highlights that the lack of recognition for overseas qualifications and work experience stems from a 'deficit model' of difference Key studies reveal that non-Australian teachers are often perceived as lacking skills and experience, with minimal cultural capital attributed to their contributions Interestingly, these same studies indicate that overseas-trained teachers (OTTs) view their professional expertise and practical teaching experience as their most significant strengths, with 83.33% affirming this in Guo and Singh’s 2009 research Additionally, Hartsuyker (2007) notes that OTTs and teachers from non-English speaking backgrounds offer valuable insights and skills to the Australian education system.
“a range of experience, cultural perspectives and languages to schools, and are important in a multicultural school context” (2007, p 48)
According to Collins and Reid (2012), 59% of teachers expressed positive feedback regarding their experiences with OTTs who successfully navigated the accreditation process.
Teachers in Australia have positively engaged with their new communities, with many expressing a willingness to recommend the experience to others considering teaching in the country Notably, 60% of these educators anticipate continuing their teaching careers in Australia over the next five years.
Main issues with current procedures
There is evidence that the pathways for entry are not operating optimally The current teaching force in
Australia's population is not fully representative of its community's diversity, with 26.5% of residents being born overseas (OECD 2011) In New South Wales, 25% of students originate from non-English language backgrounds, highlighting the multicultural fabric of the region.
16.5% are born in non-English speaking countries (DET
In 2011, it was found that only 11% of government school staff in Australia had a language background other than English, and fewer than 3% possessed tertiary qualifications from non-English speaking countries (NSW DET 2005) Additionally, a previous study estimated that over 15,000 overseas-trained teachers were unable to obtain or upgrade their accreditation to teach in Australia (Inglis & Philips).
1995) The problem of having a predominantly Anglo-
Australian profession and the implications of this for curriculum, resources and teaching in schools has also been a finding of many reports (Iredale & Fox 1997)
Several Canadian studies have reported OTTs being locked into a cycle of diminishing casual employment in schools; teachers lose confidence and schools lose interest (Pollock 2010; Schmidt, 2010; Schmidt & Block
Research indicates that the current policies aimed at facilitating the entry of Over-the-Top (OTT) services into the profession are, in reality, leading to marginalization and exclusion.
Studies reveal several critical issues regarding teacher qualifications, highlighting a tendency to undervalue overseas teaching experience in favor of local credentials There is a disproportionate focus on English language testing and paper qualifications, which exacerbates the challenges posed by the lack of support for pre- and post-accreditation processes and professional development This situation elevates the significance of English Language Proficiency (ELP) testing, as it is prioritized over the assessment of qualifications and professional skills in the application process Consequently, this emphasis on ELP testing shapes the expectations and perceptions surrounding language assessment, influencing the overall efficacy of qualification and skill assessments for teachers.
English language proficiency and teaching
Insights from research into language demands of other professions: The case of health care
The case of health care
Research into the language demands of professions is particularly robust in the healthcare sector Scholars have examined healthcare and medical discourse through various lenses, including discourse analysis, functional linguistics, and genre and corpus linguistics (Atkinson & Valle 2013; Iedema 2013; Sarangi 2010).
Research on professional language and language proficiency in healthcare is limited compared to other fields Key findings highlight the challenges in defining and evaluating "language proficiency" for healthcare professionals in English Additionally, studies investigate the relationship between professional competence, communication skills, and their linguistic elements.
Effective patient-centered management relies on key communication skills, as outlined in multiple studies (Ong et al 1995; Kurtz et al 2003) These skills include establishing rapport, understanding consultation reasons, exploring presenting issues, structuring consultations, utilizing appropriate non-verbal cues, providing adequate information, achieving shared understanding from the patient's perspective, engaging in shared decision-making, and appropriately concluding the session These competencies are encapsulated in the Calgary-Cambridge framework (Kurtz et al 2003 in Wette, 2011) However, the complexity of medical interactions makes it challenging to map professional language demands and develop a comprehensive proficiency test that addresses all scenarios.
Wette (2010) highlights that effective communication in healthcare requires a more comprehensive understanding of communicative competence than what is typically emphasized in applied linguistics This creates a disconnect between language experts and medical practitioners regarding the essential nature of communication within health professions.
Research shows that mastering English language proficiency standards differs significantly from effective communication in healthcare settings Merrifield (2008) found that 70% of complaints against internationally-educated doctors were linked to broader communication issues rather than English language skills.
(2008, p 10) Chur-Hansen et al (1998) found that undergraduate medical students were deemed unsatisfactory in language screening but this did not strongly relate to their performance in clinical interviews
A significant American study on internationally educated medical graduates revealed that assessments using standardized patients—trained laypeople—were more indicative of interpersonal skills than overall TOEFL scores (Boulet et al 2001 in Wette 2011).
Research indicates that doctors with high English proficiency test scores often face criticism from colleagues and patients regarding their communication skills Studies reveal that healthcare professionals struggle with understanding the importance of social conversation in medical settings, using everyday language to describe medical conditions, and navigating the dynamics of power and tone during interactions (Eggly 2002) Furthermore, Read and Wette (2009) concluded that many aspects of effective medical communication extend beyond traditional training.
The assessment of language competence in authentic or semi-authentic contexts, however, has not proved any more successful Read and Wette (2009) compared
IELTS with a vocationally-oriented language test, the
The Occupational English Test (OET) has been criticized for not effectively assessing communication skills in clinical contexts, leading participants to prefer the IELTS due to its lower cost and better preparation support Researchers highlighted the flawed distinction between language proficiency and professional communication skills, suggesting that medical-focused simulated performance tasks may not be more valid than general proficiency tests in evaluating health professionals' communication abilities.
Individual registration bodies must ensure candidates possess adequate English proficiency to succeed in clinical assessments However, these bodies seem to view the established IELTS and OET standards as reliable indicators of overall English ability, leading them to forgo additional evaluations of professional communication skills.
Wette highlights that high scores in English proficiency tests like IELTS or OET do not ensure that internationally trained healthcare professionals can effectively perform in real-world clinical settings.
In 2011, it was documented that overseas qualified health professionals must achieve a minimum score of 7 in each component of the IELTS academic module, OET, or specified alternatives to demonstrate competency However, Pharmacy candidates are required to attain a higher minimum score of 7.5.
The English language demands of teaching
Teaching involves complex language demands, and effectively framing these demands to create assessment tools for language use has proven to be quite challenging While there is extensive research on language in education, it encompasses diverse areas that have evolved in response to various issues and challenges.
Research from the 1960s and 1970s extensively examined the role of language in primary and secondary classrooms, highlighting its significance in the development of cognition, thinking, speaking, and writing (Barnes 1976; Britton 1970; Marland 1977; Rosen & Rosen 1973; Stubbs 1976, 1983) This body of work primarily focused on student language and the teachers' role in fostering this development, utilizing developmental frameworks to describe language growth For a comprehensive overview of these studies, refer to Sawyer and Singh (2012, p 86).
The structure and features of classroom language have been explored through discourse analysis, starting with Sinclair and Coulthard (1975) and later by researchers like Cazden, Walsh (2006), Van Lier (2001), and Spindler (1982) from an anthropological viewpoint Seedhouse (2004) introduced a conversation analysis approach to language classroom discourse While much of the research focuses on conditions that enhance second language acquisition and the teacher's role in guiding interaction, it also sheds light on the complex interactions teachers must navigate, regardless of the subject matter.
There is also a long tradition of work in teacher education on classroom skills and language: questioning, explaining, running class discussion or small groups, and classroom management (Barry & King 1988; Turney
The primary focus in teacher training is on developing essential skills, although the use of teacher language is also considered In the field of TESOL, many educators specialize in teaching English as an additional language, as highlighted by various studies (Gebhard 2010; Mahboob 2010; Richards 1998; Richards & Lockhart).
1994) There is a strong tradition of research into
“non-native” teachers of English which explores the issues of the skills, knowledge and understanding that these teachers bring to language teaching (Braine 1999, 2010; Kamhi-Stein 2004; Llurda, 2005; Medgyes 1994,
2012) Studies also address the issues of prejudice and marginalisation
The fourth area focuses on subject-specific language, especially in Science and Mathematics, utilizing concepts of register and genre from Systemic Functional Linguistics This research offers a valuable framework for understanding language use in educational settings and is well-supported by evidence for its application in assessing language proficiency in these subjects.
Developing a coherent and valid framework for describing teacher language presents several challenges, as teaching is a complex profession The creation of teacher competencies has proven difficult, with many descriptions lacking a research foundation Instead, they often manifest as vague terms such as "professional standards," "domains of teaching," and "descriptors."
The identification of teachers' classroom language has primarily focused on small-scale needs analyses rather than a comprehensive understanding of teacher competencies Documenting the language used by teachers for reflective practice or scaffolding presents a significant challenge.
Variability in subject-specific language poses challenges in education, as school subjects encompass broader knowledge disciplines Teachers play a crucial role in translating and scaffolding this knowledge into engaging content for students However, assessments of teachers' subject-specific language may inadvertently hinder effective teaching, as highlighted by Elder (1993b).
An effective science teacher utilizes gestures, visuals, and relatable examples to explain concepts like reflection in everyday language, while a less skilled teacher may rely on technical and abstract terminology The complexity of language differs not only across disciplines but also based on the specific needs of the students, highlighting the importance of adapting communication styles in education.
Elder (1994b) proposes an inventory of language derived from studies of L2 teachers These include:
! medium-oriented interactions, those which focus on the content and understandings
! message-oriented interactions, such as explaining, categorising, labelling
! activity-oriented interactions such as giving instructions
! framework interactions, such as directing, explaining, questioning, paraphrasing
! extra-classroom use, such as attending professional development, interacting with parents
Frameworks that merge professional skills with language often complicate the assessment of language competence alone Elder’s inventory incorporates professional skills highlighted in previous skills-based research on educators, such as Turney's study from 1983.
Sawyer and Singh emphasize that in teacher education, the focus on a teacher's proficiency in spoken language often revolves around micro-skills These skills include essential abilities such as explaining, discussing, and questioning, which are crucial for effective teaching.
The issues emerging in the research into the language demands of teaching are quite similar to those identified in the studies of healthcare language competence
Studies have identified key professional language skills essential for effective teaching, including paraphrasing, active listening, and enhancing student discussions Additionally, mastery of technical subject language and the ability to simplify complex concepts into understandable explanations for students are crucial competencies that proficiency tests often overlook (Sawyer & Singh).
2012) Elder found that tests privilege formal English usage rather than everyday language which may be a marker of better teaching in many classroom contexts (Elder 1993a)
Ultimately, the language of teachers is not a well-defined area, since it encompasses everything from informal to academic English across a wide range of skills (Elder
Recent advancements in systemic functional linguistics and genre/text types have been notable; however, research remains insufficient for systematically modeling and sampling the genres of teaching.
English language competence is a critical factor in teacher accreditation, as highlighted by various studies (Genzuk 1995; Inglis & Philips 1995; Lavandez 1994) Research by Guo and Singh (2009) indicates that while 94.7% of interviewed teachers felt confident in their overall English proficiency, they struggled with understanding and using the informal Australian English spoken by their students Additionally, 90% expressed confidence in their subject-specific language, yet challenges with educational terminology and jargon were also noted.
Pronunciation challenges have been identified among teachers from both English and non-English speaking backgrounds Research by Collins and Reid (2012) revealed that many immigrant teachers from Africa and India experienced negative reactions to their accents, similar to those faced by teachers with American and Irish accents Several individuals reported instances of their accents being ridiculed and receiving unfavorable feedback due to their pronunciation.
Vocational English language testing
Developing a framework for English language teacher proficiency presents significant challenges, prompting essential questions about vocational and professional English language testing in teaching and teacher education Notably, the variability of teacher competence across different professions and between academic and everyday English is critical to explore Additionally, given the complexity of the teaching profession, which encompasses more than just observable language interactions, it raises the question of whether teachers' work can be effectively represented through assessable tasks This discussion leads to a deeper examination of the construct of strategic competence as it is articulated in the teaching literature.
“reflection in action” – how can this and other teaching skills be assessed? Should they be assessed separately, independent of the language used, and is this possible?
Elder (2001) addressed these specific questions, drawing on research into three tests: the Victorian Diploma of Education Oral Interview Test of English (DOITE)
English language problems of NESB teachers (Elder
1993b), and a language proficiency test for non-native teachers of Italian and Japanese in Australia (Elder
This section analyses research into DOITE to explore issues in vocational language proficiency testing (Elder
The test evaluated a variety of listening and speaking skills often overlooked in standard proficiency assessments, including participation in multichannel conversations, issuing directives, and formulating various types of questions It also focused on strategic competence, emphasizing the ability to comprehend and respond to culturally-specific non-verbal cues, utilize effective elicitation techniques, and ensure understanding.
Elder (2001), in an evaluation of DOITE and other language proficiency tests for teaching, quoted Douglas
In 2000, it was argued that there is no clear principle for determining which aspects of a target context should be sampled to ensure that test tasks and content accurately reflect the authentic situation.
(Douglas 2000, p 46) She gave the example of a subject-specific language test, MATHSPEAK, where subject specialists scored no better than in a generalist version of the same test (Smith 1992 in Elder 2001)
She also questioned the possibility of “authenticity”, either situational or interactional (Bachman & Palmer
Concerns regarding the relationship between tasks and real-world performance have been highlighted, particularly focusing on the impact of intra-task effects on test-taker performance This raises the question of how accurately any test can reflect real-life scenarios Elder (2001) concluded that the uncertainties surrounding performance-based tasks as a measurement tool indicate that the language for specific purposes (LSP) testing efforts of the 1980s and 1990s generate more questions than they resolve.
Current research lacks a systematic approach to linking underlying abilities with performance and processing conditions, making it difficult to assess the language demands across various contexts Consequently, it remains unclear how specific patterns of underlying abilities may prove more effective in certain situations and how these abilities translate into actual performance (Skehan 1998, p 59).
IELTS as a measure of language proficiency
Appropriate test use as a component of validity
Chappelle, Grabe, and Berns (1997) argued that test developers are not obligated to investigate the unintended uses of TOEFL, yet once information is collected, there is a responsibility to ensure its appropriate use The International Language Testing Organisation (ILTA) Code of Ethics emphasizes this responsibility, stating in principle number 9 that language testers must consider the potential short and long-term effects on all stakeholders, and they reserve the right to withhold their professional services based on ethical considerations (ILTA 2011).
Recent studies in test validation have highlighted the importance of systematic or consequential validity, particularly for high-stakes tests (Spolsky, 1997) This aspect of validity examines the social impacts of testing and has been integrated into modern theories of test validity, as discussed in the works of Messick (1989) and further developed by Bachman (1990) and Bachman & Palmer.
The IELTS test's extensive applications raise important questions regarding its validity This study is guided by the theoretical framework established by Messick (1989), as illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Consequences of test use as a component of validity (Messick 1989)
Research into the predictive validity of IELTS
The predictive validity of IELTS in academic contexts has been a major focus of research: Dooey and Oliver
(2002), Humphries, Haugh, Fenton Smith, Lobo, Michael and Walkinshaw (2012), Hill, Storch and Lynch (1999),
Ingram and Bayliss ( 2006), Kerstjen and Nery (2000)
Storch and Hill (2008), Ushioda and Harsch (2011)
Most research focuses on the tertiary sector, addressing various issues previously discussed Bayliss and Ingram provide a comprehensive summary of the significance of IELTS scores for tertiary education.
The IELTS test score reflects a student's English proficiency level, indicating their ability to meet the linguistic requirements of higher education However, it does not guarantee academic success or prevent potential language-related challenges.
“… it predicts the extent to which a candidate will be able to begin studying through the medium of English” (O’Loughlin & Arkoudis
Several questions arise when measuring the predictive validity of language proficiency tests such as IELTS
The construct in question raises important considerations about its relationship to proficiency as defined by future assessments, as well as its connection to broader definitions of communicative competence and success in academic and professional contexts Defining what constitutes success is crucial, and it is essential to determine the appropriate stages at which this success can and should be evaluated.
If and when these questions can be answered, then the next questions are: what are the variables which influence success and how can these variables be controlled?
Research indicates that IELTS is a reliable predictor of language ability for postgraduate studies A study by Bayliss and Ingram (2006) involving 28 tertiary students demonstrated that IELTS effectively forecasts general language performance during the initial six months of tertiary education The close alignment between researcher and participant self-rating scores and actual IELTS scores supports the test's validity However, the study also revealed varying perceptions of success and noted that different faculty requirements for spoken English influenced the correlation of results.
The findings from studies of the predictive value of
IELTS in terms of “success” are much more mixed
Meta-analyses (Graham 1987) have produced ambiguous findings … about the same number of researchers appear to have concluded that ELP is a useful predictor of academic success as have not (Graham 1987, p 512)
Research undertaken by Cotton and Conrow (1998) produced conflicting results because of intervening variables and difficulties in defining academic success
A study of 70 international students of Chinese background in Business degrees (Weisz & Nicolettou
Research by Dooey and Oliver (2002) and subsequent studies indicate a weak correlation between IELTS scores and GPA, specifically in only two subjects Their findings suggest that IELTS is merely one of several predictors of academic success, with limited evidence supporting its validity in this context Notably, the IELTS reading module was the only component that demonstrated a significant correlation with academic performance.
Many studies have used GPAs and semester weighted averages as indicators of academic success, often supplemented by interviews and questionnaires However, GPA comparisons across different disciplines are problematic due to the diverse nature of assessment tasks Educational success may also stem from high performance in practical portfolios and reflective analyses Elder (1993b) highlighted that the demands on overseas-trained Diploma of Education students varied significantly across institutions and over time, with differing emphases on practical teaching versus theoretical knowledge Consequently, IELTS writing and listening modules may predict success differently based on institutional requirements In teacher education programs, a simple GPA fails to capture student performance in practicums or coursework Elder (1993) noted that perceptions of "success" among students and staff were more closely related to teaching skills, responsiveness to students, and clarity in communication, rather than general language proficiency as indicated by IELTS scores.
In a study of 125 Chinese international students, Phakiti
A study conducted in 2008 examined the relationships between GPA, IELTS English language proficiency, IELTS reading proficiency, and metacognitive reading strategies using a Likert-scale questionnaire The findings revealed minimal predictive value for these variables regarding academic achievement, with only 7% for English language proficiency, 10% for reading proficiency, and 5% for metacognitive strategies The research concluded that non-linguistic factors play a more significant role in determining academic success.
A study by Kerstjens and Nery (2000) involving 113 first-year university and TAFE Business students revealed a small to medium predictive effect on academic performance, accounting for 8.4% to 9.1% of the variation Notably, the Reading test emerged as the sole significant predictor of students' performance.
This confirmed the earlier study of Criper and Davies
(1988) who found that language proficiency contributed around 10% to academic outcomes, a correlation of 0.3 between GPA and IELTS In their study, only the IELTS reading module showed a moderate positive correlation
The study found a negative correlation between speaking skills and a weak correlation with listening and writing abilities Additionally, it concluded that proficiency in the English language does not solely ensure success, as other factors may hold equal or greater significance.
In a study of postgraduate education students, Woodrow
(2006) found that IELTS was only moderately predictive of academic achievement There were weak but significant correlations between overall IELTS score and
GPA, and they were significant for writing, speaking and listening At lower levels, the relationship was stronger: at IELTS 6.5 or below but not at 7 or above
Ushioda and Harsch (2011) conducted a study at the University of Warwick, examining the predictive validity of English language entry scores for international students Their findings revealed that academic grades were most accurately predicted by these overall entry scores.
IELTS scores and writing scores
Humphreys et al (2012) investigated the predictive validity of IELTS by examining the relationship between
A study of 51 undergraduate students at an Australian university revealed varying IELTS scores and GPAs across different skills Notably, no correlation was found between speaking and writing scores However, listening and reading scores demonstrated a strong correlation with GPA during the first and second semesters, while this relationship did not hold in the third semester.
Storch and Hill (2008) conducted a study involving 40 undergraduate students, who had entry scores ranging from 6.5 to 7, to assess the improvement in their performance on a diagnostic English test during their first semester at university Instead of utilizing an IELTS retest, the researchers employed the Diagnostic English Language assessment to evaluate the students' progress.
Assessment (DELA) conducted by the University of
A study conducted in Melbourne revealed that most students experienced significant language improvement While the findings suggest that students admitted through IELTS continued to enhance their language skills, the study did not assert predictive validity due to the exclusion of those who did not gain entry.
To sum up, the main findings from the literature are that:
! IELTS results can generally be predictive of language performance in the first year of tertiary study
! Other factors come into play when predictive value in terms of “success” is measured and language proficiency as measured by IELTS is only one of many factors
In conclusion, the factors that interact to determine
“success” can be categorised as discipline/course specific
In the realm of education, it is essential to address the diverse skills and language requirements of students, alongside the assessment and professional demands they face Effective teaching and learning strategies must incorporate tailored support and necessary adjustments in both instruction and evaluation to meet varying language and learning needs Additionally, recognizing individual learning goals, styles, and motivations is crucial for fostering an inclusive and productive educational environment.
Over the past few decades, the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) has increasingly been utilized for various professional entry requirements and immigration purposes However, the application of IELTS for immigration has sparked significant debate among experts (Ahern 2009; Merrifield 2011; Read 2001) According to Read and Wette (2009), IELTS was originally developed to facilitate access to academic studies and was not explicitly designed to evaluate the specific communication skills necessary for different professions.
(2009, p 4) They found that there had been no large- scale study to assess the predictive validity of IELTS for professional registration
Identification of proficiency levels for teacher education
This section reviews the research into the identification of proficiency levels for education professions, returning to the focus of the present study
Research indicates that the selection of appropriate IELTS levels for professional entry has often been arbitrary, lacking a solid foundation in empirical evidence Merrifield (2008) revealed that many organizations based their language proficiency requirements on internal assessments and alignment with peers, with the rationale for these decisions often obscured by staff turnover Additionally, organizations infrequently reviewed their score requirements, typically only responding to complaints, which frequently led to an increase in required scores to between 7 and 7.5 for healthcare professions Similarly, Read and Wette (2009) noted that professional associations commonly mandated band scores of 7 and above for registration, varying by specific healthcare field.
Two studies of pre-service teacher education recommended IELTS scores of 6.5 to 7 (Elder 1993b; Sawyer & Singh 2012) Elder (1993b) concluded that a
A baseline IELTS score of 6.5 for entry into teacher education programs is deemed adequate, as success in these programs relies on various factors such as motivation, support levels, and course content It is recommended that entry scores align with the availability of additional support A study by Sawyer and Singh (2012) involving surveys and interviews with lecturers, students, and registration authorities found that among 15 universities, 12 required a score of 7, one required 7.5, and two accepted a score of 6.5 for admission into pre-service teacher education programs.
They found that teacher educators were generally happy with the entry level although the registration authority interviewee felt it should be raised from 7 to 7.5
Educators felt that the IELTS speaking test was not relevant to teaching as there was little demand for
Researchers highlighted the "flexibility of expression" in assessing educational needs, noting an assumption of uniformity in scoring that overlooked diverse requirements Participants primarily viewed speaking and listening as critical issues, while reading and writing received less attention They argued that while an entry score of 7.5 might be justified for one-year teacher education programs, it is unnecessary for longer courses, as higher scores could detract from essential topics like understanding Anglophone schooling cultures (2010, p 73).
Many individuals struggle to comprehend the components assessed by the IELTS and the implications of their scores This aligns with the earlier research by Ballard and Clanchy (1991), which indicated that concerns regarding international students are often generalized under the category of English language proficiency.
Role and consequential validity and IELTS in the assessment of teachers’ language proficiency
IELTS in the assessment of teachers’ language proficiency
The IELTS plays a crucial role in the accreditation process by serving as a key entry criterion Its interrelationship with other admission requirements is significant, influencing how proficiency levels are identified Additionally, the impact of the test on test-takers, users, and employers highlights its consequential validity in assessing language skills.
When examining expected proficiency levels, it's essential to consider IELTS and other proficiency testing Understanding the perceptions of test-takers before and after the exam, as well as the views of test users and employers in workplace settings, is crucial for a comprehensive analysis.
Validity is fundamentally about the interpretation of test scores rather than the scores themselves It is essential to validate the inferences drawn from these scores, focusing on their meaning and the actions that result from these interpretations As Messick (1996) emphasizes, the true validation lies in understanding the implications of score interpretation rather than merely assessing the test or observation tool.
There is also a body of research indicating an impact of
Research highlights the impact of IELTS and other proficiency tests on test-takers' psychological well-being and social interactions, emphasizing the importance of advising before and after these assessments (Viete 1998; Wette 2011) Many studies reveal that staff within professional organizations often lack a comprehensive understanding of IELTS and similar language tests, leading to inflexible entry administration Merrifield (2008) noted that most organizations relied on a single expert for IELTS insights, and when that individual left, the institution lost critical knowledge regarding score interpretations.
Research on IELTS and international students in higher education reveals that staff often view IELTS scores as a clear indicator of a student's ability to manage the challenges of tertiary study However, when issues arise, they tend to attribute these difficulties to the initial proficiency testing rather than recognizing the diverse support needs of students There is a notable lack of awareness regarding the necessity for ongoing English language support (O’Loughlin 2008).
Despite the importance of IELTS scores, they are rarely utilized to inform future English language learning, with universities neglecting to evaluate their IELTS requirements (O’Loughlin, 2008) The management of test results and entry processes lacks flexibility, ignoring standard errors in achievement Evidence from both test-takers and clinicians indicates that overseas qualified health professionals from non-English-speaking backgrounds in New Zealand and Australia encounter significant communication challenges even after meeting the English proficiency requirement (Wette, 2011, 2012) Registration bodies often regard IELTS as a sole predictor of professional and academic communication abilities (Wette, 2011, 2012).
Research highlights the necessity of support courses for internationally-educated teachers during pre-service education and throughout their careers (Campbell, Tangen & Spooner-Lane 2006; Collins & Reid 2012) Elder (1993b) emphasized that language proficiency requirements should align with the level of support provided However, evidence from teacher registration bodies indicates minimal support is offered According to AITSL guidelines, IELTS testing is a prerequisite for registration, requiring a minimum score of 7.5 before teachers can apply to employer bodies This creates a "stand-alone" interpretation of language proficiency, leading to a disconnect between language skills and other professional competencies, thereby limiting flexibility in the assessment of teachers' qualifications.
Summary
The literature review highlights a significant research gap regarding the IELTS levels necessary for professional entry and the subsequent monitoring and support Limited studies have examined the evolving English language demands in teaching, and even fewer have explored the perceptions of test-takers, their colleagues, employers, and students within workplace settings This study aims to partially fill this gap in understanding.
Research approach
The literature highlights a significant need for improved understanding of IELTS score usage among Overseas Trained Teachers (OTTs), yet data on the post-test experiences of candidates remains scarce To address this, the study focused on a specific group of stakeholders—employers of OTTs—utilizing qualitative research methods such as interviews and focus groups to gather insights This approach allowed for an in-depth exploration of employers' experiences, despite their lack of expertise in language assessment These employers brought valuable insights from their extensive knowledge of the evolving written and spoken communication within educational settings, as well as their direct experiences with non-native English-speaking teachers educated outside Australia This rich background serves as the foundation of the study's data.
Recruitment
Ethical clearance was obtained through Macquarie
University Human Research Ethics secretariat As part of this process, all recruiting procedures, information and consent forms and interview questions were submitted for approval (see Appendix 1)
It was also necessary to obtain ethical clearance for all
DET schools in Australia and New Zealand This was successfully undertaken for Victoria, Tasmania and the
ACT, with some polite refusals from other states, who cited the high number of research projects and the demands these made on their principals’ limited time
Recruitment efforts involved directly emailing school principals; however, the overwhelming demands on their time resulted in a low response rate For instance, 250 emails sent to urban schools in Victoria yielded no replies The only participating principal from a Victorian state school had previously been involved in a related study and had expressed her willingness to engage in further research.
After correspondence with the Association for
In our research on independent schools, we discovered that engaging with principals on an individual basis was feasible, leading to a higher number of participants from these schools than initially anticipated in our original study design.
The study involved a greater number of public school principals compared to independent school principals, with a diverse representation from primary, junior, and senior high schools discussing the use of online teaching tools (OTTs) across various subjects, including IT, English, and Maths The principals hailed from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, including China, Sri Lanka, India, Russia, France, Israel, and Fiji Notably, in New South Wales (NSW), only independent schools are allowed to utilize the IELTS, while public schools are restricted to the PEAT, making the insights from NSW independent schools particularly valuable.
Participants were invited to take part in a pilot study, or the main study, which involved either one-on-one interviews, focus group discussions, or both A total of
A total of 21 principals took part in various phases of the study Although the participant count was somewhat restricted due to funding and availability constraints, it was adequate for our qualitative research approach The diverse contexts represented in the sample enhanced the validity of our findings For more details, refer to Appendix 2, which outlines the focus group questions.
Outcomes of the pilot study
In April 2012, a pilot study was conducted involving three principals from schools in the Sydney region These principals were invited to test a questionnaire and participate in a focus group session, selected for their experience in employing OTTs.
As a result of the pilot study:
! decisions were made about the length and number of writing and speaking samples that it was feasible to include in the main study
! some minor changes were made to the interview questions
! focus group procedures were refined
The pilot study data were manually coded, providing valuable insights for developing the thematic coding approach used in the main study's data analysis (Gibbs 2007; Miles and Huberman 1994; Minichiello, Aroni, Timewell).
The main study
Participants
Principals and deputy principals took part in one-on-one interviews, which were conducted in person, via phone, or through Skype, and these sessions were audio-recorded and transcribed Additionally, focus groups were organized with personal visits from researchers, hosted by participating schools across various states A total of six focus group sessions were conducted, representing New South Wales, Tasmania, Victoria, and New Zealand, along with two sessions from the Australian Capital Territory.
Participation in the project was voluntary, with a $100 donation provided to each school whose staff contributed their time and expertise Although motivational payments can be a contentious topic, this decision was made for two key reasons.
The modern workplace in the twenty-first century is marked by employees who feel "time poor" and face numerous demands on their time As a result, some individuals may hesitate to engage in research projects that they perceive as not contributing value to their roles or the organization.
To ensure a well-rounded sample of participants, we aimed to engage individuals who viewed our research as a constructive opportunity rather than a platform for expressing negative preconceptions We believe that the donations contributed significantly to achieving this goal.
This qualitative study does not claim that the 18 participating principals are representative of the entire principal population Although efforts were made to include volunteers from diverse contexts, ages, genders, and ethnic backgrounds, a convenience sampling method was deemed suitable for exploring the lived experiences of these individuals in their workplace roles The list of participating principals is provided in Table 1.
Data collection and analysis procedures
The three research questions were addressed as follows:
How do principals describe and evaluate their experience of working with OTTs who have entered employment through (a) an IELTS score of 7 or above, and/or (b) other entry pathways?
In this study, narrative research techniques (Bamberg 2009; Bamberg, De Fina and Schiffrin 2010) were employed to encourage principals and deputy principals to share their experiences with OTTs and workplace situations The primary data was gathered through individual interviews, supplemented by spontaneous anecdotes from focus group sessions, resulting in a rich anecdote corpus of approximately 13,000 words.
Anecdotes were uploaded to NVivo 9, a digital software package used for storing and coding transcripts Two researchers independently examined these anecdotes to identify emergent themes Their findings were compared, leading to the compilation of a comprehensive list of themes.
2009) The most fundamental distinction was made between experiences that were judged to be positive and those that were negative Open coding (Corbin & Strauss
In 1998, a study was conducted to identify factors influencing experiences perceived as either positive or negative, although the distinction was not always straightforward Axial coding revealed interactions among these factors and participants, culminating in the development of a model illustrated in Figure 3 A parallel approach was taken for negative experiences, leading to the integration of findings in Figure 4, which depicts the factors affecting communication effectiveness in both positive and negative contexts.
STATE Type of school Participation:
16 Tas State Junior High ( years 7-10) x x
18 Tas State Junior High (years 7-10) x x
Table 1: Participants in the main study
Principals in Australia and New Zealand consider a specific IELTS score as a key indicator of the professional language proficiency required for teachers seeking employment in primary and secondary schools This score reflects the necessary communication skills essential for effective teaching and interaction within the educational environment Understanding the expectations of school leaders regarding language proficiency is crucial for aspiring educators aiming to meet the standards set for successful integration into these educational systems.
In the IELTS test, band scores are assigned to the four macroskills: reading, writing, speaking, and listening This research specifically concentrates on the productive skills, as reading and listening are objectively assessed and do not generate evaluable text.
The investigation involved focus group sessions where participating principals reviewed samples of written and spoken test responses, allowing for an open discussion of their insights and evaluations.
Participants were first given the opportunity to become more familiar with IELTS tasks, and the significance of
IELTS scores ranging from 6.5 to 8 in each of the skills
Assistance was provided from a representative of IELTS
Australia aims to educate principals on IELTS test tasks and procedures, detailing the criteria for score calculation This information exceeds the publicly available details, ensuring a clearer understanding of the assessment process.
(IELTS 2009) the need for confidentiality was emphasised
In this research, the conceptualisation of language and the way it was represented to the participants were constrained by several pre-existing factors
To effectively evaluate the existing benchmarks, participants needed background knowledge on the criteria used for their calculation Therefore, they were provided with detailed explanations of the IELTS criteria and band descriptors prior to reviewing sample recordings and scripts Additionally, since the principals lacked expertise in language, this foundational input was essential for them to provide meaningful feedback on specific language aspects.
To facilitate discussions on a candidate's language proficiency, we provided essential terminology while avoiding limitations imposed by the IELTS criteria Consequently, we simplified the cues for evaluation, focusing on fluency, lexis, grammar, and pronunciation for speaking samples, and coherence, cohesion, grammar, lexis, and spelling for writing samples Although spelling is not a formal IELTS criterion, it emerged as a significant factor during RQ1 interviews with principals Additionally, we included an open question to capture any other important criteria not covered by IELTS.
While acknowledging the limitations in the wording of prompts regarding coherence and cohesion, we found them useful for guiding our discussion We chose not to include specific references to task completion for two main reasons: first, the tasks significantly diverged from real-world writing activities of teachers, making it less reasonable to assess workplace readiness based on task success or failure; second, practical time constraints limited participants' availability, prompting us to maximize effectiveness By eliminating this criterion, we were able to include an additional script in our analysis.
The study utilized three writing samples and five speaking samples from IELTS, accompanied by examiner comments, focusing on candidates from diverse language backgrounds, including Chinese, South American Spanish, and Indian Unlike previous research by Sawyer and Singh (2012), this study also gathered scores for individual IELTS assessment criteria The samples were closely aligned with existing benchmark levels and exhibited variance across the four criteria, enabling a more nuanced analysis of the criteria that participants believed should be prioritized in evaluating suitability.
Principals evaluated test response samples to share their views on acceptable language competence for the workplace and express beliefs on relevant language abilities beyond the test's scope (Bachman & Palmer, 1996) During a 2–2.5 hour session, speaking and writing samples were assessed, with a brief break following the discussion of the first skill Focus group discussions were audiotaped and professionally transcribed.
Transcripts from discussions about each sample were meticulously checked for accuracy and then uploaded to NVivo 9 for coding The coding process focused on three key areas: overall impressions of candidates' employability, explicit references to language proficiency aspects outlined in the IELTS criteria, and additional communicative competence elements noted by participants This comprehensive data collection method resulted in a valuable repository of insights.
“grounded theory” approach to coding and analysis, whose value lies in its ability to be traced back to, yet also reach beyond, its data (Corbin & Strauss 1998)
Principals identify various genres of spoken and written discourse as essential for effective functioning in the school workplace, including formal communication, collaborative dialogue, and instructional discourse In recent years, the rise of technology and digital communication tools has transformed these genres, leading to a greater emphasis on online collaboration, instant messaging, and social media interactions This shift has necessitated that school leaders adapt their communication strategies to foster engagement and ensure clarity among staff, students, and parents, highlighting the importance of digital literacy in contemporary educational environments.
Participants reflected on the evolving nature of the workplace, particularly due to new technologies This exploration aimed to identify the communication events teachers must engage in and gather stakeholder insights regarding the perceived demands on language proficiency.
Research question 1: Principals’ experiences
Principals’ awareness of IELTS
Only one principal among the participants had encountered an example of the test, and that was several decades ago, leaving the others without any direct experience This lack of familiarity is reflected in the following extracts, which not only highlight their limited knowledge but also reveal some prevalent misconceptions among the principals.
In the following extracts, the interviewer is labeled as I and the principal as P
I: Right, yeah So the actual test they do, you don't know anything about what's in the test and what it involves and what actually tests? Okay
A principal from ACT suggested that TESOL specialists in schools are likely familiar with the test, but generally, principals may not have had exposure to it.
A comparable response was made by the New Zealand focus group:
I: Can you just fill me in on what you know about the kind of language test that these overseas teachers did to be able to teach with you?
The following excerpts from the focus groups also provide insights into how existing knowledge had been obtained and ways in which it was inaccurate
P: See I don't know what – I think, did you mention the IELTS or something like that?
P: Yes I believe that's what they've had But it never comes up in the paperwork or anything that
I: Okay and what about the other group, the Fijian
Indian ones? Do you know anything
P: Yes, well I assume that's the same as well
I: Okay, so no input on the test to you or anything?
P: No, no I don't have any knowledge of what they are expecting The only reason I know about that testing is that a number of my parents here, the parents of the children here are Indian and
One principal knew of IELTS through having students who were candidates
I: Do you know very much about the IELTS test and what's in it?
P: Not really, I haven't seen the test, I've heard about it from the people who sit for it and we have people in school sitting for it on a regular basis
Awareness of the test sometimes arose through its consequences, as in this case of a principal not being able to give a contract to a teacher who had not passed
I: Do you know anything about the kind of language test they did to be able to teach in your school?
P: I know it exists and I know that one of the questions is if I've been unable to give someone a contract and the answer is yes, they hadn't – I think it was even to recommend them for permanency, and they hadn't got proficiency, they hadn't passed a proficiency in English test
Colleagues were also a source of information
I: I see, yeah Do you know anything about the kind of test – the language test – that these teachers did?
P: Yeah, look I am aware that there are series of examinations – and this has all been through informal conversations with a number of colleagues But as far as I'm aware, there are assessments to do with reading, writing, oral comprehension and speaking I have heard my colleagues who have trained overseas – learnt languages overseas – discuss their ratings Discuss either satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the rating that they've received
Another principal was not aware that the English test was generic and thought it might have been tailored to the communication needs of teachers
I: So this is just English proficiency We're not looking at pedagogy or cultural…
P: No, anything like that, yeah
P: So it's really not just overseas trained teachers that you're looking at
There was also confusion about the role of testing in the screening procedure, and whether it referred to professional standards as well as English
P: Well we have teachers from India, Sri Lanka, Africa, Mali in particular, Iran, Iraq Let me think, of course Canada and America and England, some teachers from England I'm just thinking of the other – other African nations, New Zealand Those with training in different countries with different standards to us do have to pass the IELTS
The findings reveal a concerning lack of engagement and awareness among employers regarding the IELTS test This underscores the necessity for employers to gain a clearer understanding of the information that the IELTS test can and cannot provide.
Principals’ experiences with overseas trained teachers
Anecdotes highlighting both positive and negative experiences were gathered and analyzed using NVivo with a grounded theory approach to identify key themes and their interconnections A model was created to illustrate the positive impacts of OTTs on interactions within the school community, as depicted in Figure 3, while another model was developed to represent the solely negative aspects, shown in Figure 4.
The anecdotes highlight key themes central to our modeling, showing that positive experiences significantly value the contributions of Over-the-Top (OTT) services Conversely, discussions about challenges reveal various issues, some of which can be mitigated through a language test, while others remain unaddressed.
When asked about the positive contributions made by
In a recent study on OTTs, most participating principals provided at least one example of effective teaching practices Often, these examples highlighted general classroom competency rather than specific teacher backgrounds One notable instance involved a teacher of Sri Lankan descent, showcasing the diverse capabilities present in educational settings.
P: …She is outstanding, a really outstanding teacher and she's been teaching English History and her
English is perfect and in fact she's been better than most of ours really
P: She's been in charge of our literacy program
It was noted that OTTs were sometimes more competent than local teachers in organisational and procedural matters in the school:
P: Yeah they tended to have a broader view of their role in the school, so they – when you start talking about plans – duty plans and operational plans, they tended to have a much better understanding of around the importance of those and where they fit in, where the teachers currently working at my school and in my previous school thought that that whole planning stuff took place at a level that they didn't really have an involvement in
The overseas-trained teachers anticipated certain outcomes but lacked clarity on the specific plans and milestone goals necessary for their roles They sought a more engaging dialogue about their responsibilities, contrasting with teachers who preferred to work independently in the classroom without external input This desire for structured communication highlights the importance of clear expectations and collaborative planning in educational settings.
…broader perspective around the school and what it does
Much more frequently, however, accounts were focused on the contributions that could be made by the teachers as a direct result of their connection with their home culture
Responses were focused predominantly in these areas:
! contribution to the students’ international perspective and citizenship
! the development of students’ skills in interacting with people with different varieties and different levels of ability in English
! in the case of OTTs teaching their first language, the credibility that comes with being a native speaker and representative of the culture
! second language users’ explicit knowledge about
! OTTs reflecting the multicultural nature of the
Examples of these are given below
Participants exhibited a product-centered perspective of culture, yet recognized the significant value of the cultural knowledge brought by overseas-trained teachers for students.
P: In terms of our other teacher who is teaching a mainstream class, who’s come from Africa, she brings a whole – she’s been teaching for a long time over in Africa, but she brings a wonderful experience of just a different culture and sharing that with the students I think that’s really a wonderful value adding to our school Having that diversity, especially with an introductory English centre in our school, I just think it’s so important I just think it adds another flavour, a really rich flavour to the school
I: So this experience of the Indian culture has been a very positive one?
P: Very positive When we do our enquiry based learning, if it's an art based one – I can think of where she's had all the children dressed up…dressed up in Indian costumes and doing an Indian dance, which was extraordinarily well received by parents and children and staff alike
[5] NZ (referring to a teacher from Ethiopia)
P: The kids love her, because she reflects some of our community and she is very flamboyant She came in with her hair all gold She has just had the baby christened and it's all sticking up and one kids said oh, you look like a princess…That is a richness that I value I am lucky, because I had to learn about cultures when I went there
P: They bring culture, so they bring a difference in culture They bring diversity for my kids…They get to mix with people from a whole variety of different cultures, which they wouldn't in their normal community, and that's a really positive thing I mean they bring a richness to the school and we reflect a broader society because of those teachers They bring experiences and stories for the kids as well They often are in areas that they can enhance an area, for example in our chef who's South American and he introduced a whole lot of South American cuisine which is really, really good
P: So, I mean, that, in terms of cultural diversity just as a staff, having that diversity, I think it's really good that we all see different ways of working and different styles The way our school operates as well, they add a different, they organise their kids and their parents into fundraising activities or other activities that promote the French culture
Recently, we celebrated Pancake Day, organized by the parents, featuring a variety of treats including hot chocolate and baguettes available for just a dollar before school The highlight was a fashion show where the kids showcased their outfits, reminiscent of Parisian style.
So I can get that, another view, another cultural world view So, yes, that wouldn’t happen if we didn’t actually have native French people or people here
P: Well, certainly real insight into a very different culture, and different schooling They're not reading it just from books; they're very able to say “this is what happened in my school” They often still have family and friends and so there's a lot of ability to share the culture
I: Would she be able to offer more for the large numbers of immigrant or refugee students you have in your school?
P: Look all the teachers have been – all the teachers in the school, because we're a multicultural school, they all offer I mean she offers experience – Fijian Indian type of experiences in terms of cooking and craft and dressing up and those sorts of things, which are a bit different to what other teachers offer Yes, but when we do, you know, we've got a multicultural day, all the teachers get involved in that They all dress up in different costume or represent a country quite equally, so it's not something that really stands out as being [inaudible] just for her
You know, her love of her culture, which is
She passionately incorporates her love for Indian and Fijian culture into her cooking and teaching, enriching the school environment with these vibrant traditions.
But she does what other teachers do who haven't got that different overseas background
This “product” view of culture, (Robinson 1988) referred to as “saris and samosas” in the UK and “chomp and stomp” in Australia, has been criticised as stereotyping
Although education systems now promote more dynamic and critical approaches to cultural issues (Pennycook
Research question 2
Speaking
In a pilot study, six focus groups evaluated five 3-4 minute speaking samples from IELTS, as using the entire test was deemed too time-consuming for participants The selected focus was on the discussion component, chosen for its potential to facilitate more authentic interactions.
Due to the limited availability of video for certain interviews and the demonstrated effectiveness of sound files in the pilot study, all samples utilized audio recordings.
The participant responses are outlined below, in terms of their overall impressions of the employability of the candidate and a set of individual criteria
! Individual assessment criteria o Fluency o Choice and use of words o Grammar o Pronunciation
Where other criteria were mentioned by the participants, these were also coded for consideration
Sample 1 was a male from China, who we will refer to as
Andy achieved an overall IELTS score of 7, with his lexical knowledge rated at the high end of the band, while his pronunciation was assessed at the low end Based on current benchmarks, he would be ineligible for Australian schools but could qualify for a teaching position in New Zealand.
The principals were unanimous in their negative assessment of his employability The following comments are typical of their evaluations
I: What was your initial response to him? Would you like him in your school as a teacher?
P: I don't think he would survive
P1: I wouldn't even think he's close
Andy’s fluency was considered by all to be inadequate:
I: Do you think his fluency was a real problem? That is the hesitations, the…
P2: Yes I do yes I've just written down “he struggles” That was the sort of overall sense I've got
[4] ACT There were lots of pauses at inappropriate places, there was no flow
The examiners and principals unanimously recognized this as his strongest attribute, highlighting his effective use of idioms and collocations While there were occasional non-native word choices, they agreed that these did not diminish his overall competence One principal's remark encapsulated the consensus of the group.
[5] ACT He was a very sophisticated thinker, got right into the depth
There was only one dissenter, who voiced an objection regarding the accuracy of his collocations
P: There was a word “down” and I tried telling him but it was something about descending and then
“down” went at the end of the sentence
I: “Descending down” It's understandable, but it's not accurate So do you think the accuracy there is a problem?
P: For primary school children, especially for the ones that we are interacting with, it's essential that our children get language models that are correct
Examiners acknowledged Andy's effective use of complex structures and several error-free sentences; however, principals expressed significant concerns regarding his grammar They overlooked his successes, instead highlighting issues such as incorrect tenses, missing auxiliaries and articles, and improper use of passives, which they deemed detrimental to his suitability for the classroom.
The examiners ranked his pronunciation as the weakest aspect, resulting in a placement at the lowest end of band 7 Despite this, they noted that he remained mostly understandable despite several non-standard features However, this assessment was met with disagreement from most principals.
In New Zealand, where he would have been accepted on a band 7 score, the responses were as follows:
P: It's his accent that's difficult His English isn't actually too bad It's his accent
Another mentioned comprehensibility as an issue
P: You have to really listen
P2: You have to really listen hard
A more moderate response was recorded by one principal in the ACT
I: Yes So pronunciation? Was his pronunciation bad enough do you think to be an obstacle?
P1: My initial thoughts were yes
Over time, students may acclimatize to this teacher's style, as he consciously paces his sentences to ensure they are not delivered too quickly.
Principals in NSW noted the following specific errors
P1: With him, there were problems There was ‘t’s with ‘ch’s
P2: The accent on the wrong syllable in places as well Intonation changes nuance as well
I: Absolutely, yeah, so there were problems with the intonation there that might cause him some difficulty
They made the following comments about implications for the classroom
P2: But the accents within words weren't – like he had stressed wrong syllables in words and that makes it difficult for some children to understand If they hear from somebody
“enormous” and they hear from somebody else
Children may struggle to recognize the word "enormous" if they are still learning the language, especially if they haven't been exposed to it yet To effectively grasp new vocabulary, it's crucial for children to receive proper instruction on word structure, intonation, and emphasis from the beginning of their learning journey.
Again, these comments relate to principal’s perceptions of the importance of the role of the teacher as a language model
The IELTS speaking assessment effectively identified the candidate's unpreparedness for teaching in Australia, yet he might have secured a teaching position in New Zealand, contrary to the advice from New Zealand principals.
Michael, a candidate from Colombia, received a flat band score of 7 on the IELTS exam Similar to Andy, this score qualifies him to teach exclusively in New Zealand.
Principals’ evaluations of Michael showed the greatest degree of divergence of any of the speaking samples, both across and within focus groups As we see from the following exchange
[1] ACT I: What did you think about Michael?
P2: (consulting her notes) I said “competent.”
I: You liked him, did you?
Reservations were also expressed in the second ACT focus group, with one definite rejection and another one considering him to be “borderline”
I: Do you think he'd be all right? What do you think?
P1: I think the children would have trouble adapting to his use of language or to his pronunciation … P2: Michael – I'm borderline – borderline with him
The Victorian group was divided, one principal expressing strong reservations the other actually preferring Michael over another candidate who had scored a band 8
P1: …and I would definitely have Michael – if it's Michael, or – before, wouldn't you?
P1: Yes, because he had – if you're talking about word stress and rhythms, I think he's got them right and she hasn't
One New Zealand response was more positive, based on past experience
P: Well to be honest, I'd have to say I would take him because I did take one like this who was probably harder to understand
However, overall the group remained divided, with another New Zealand principal commenting that it would depend on the situation, and how “desperate” they were
In NSW, the response was initially negative, with one principal saying:
P1: I'd be very, very hesitant to put him into a primary classroom on what I've heard in that…
However, on reflection and after hearing the five samples, the same principal moderated his view The extract below is taken from the same transcript
I: what we're trying to see here is, were there any of these that didn't have nearly enough English, that you wouldn't give them a try or ones
P1: from Colombia is the one that I would have
The Tasmanian group described Michael as "borderline", one adding “borderline but no”
Michael's IELTS fluency score was deemed insufficient for most contexts, except in New Zealand, yet none of the participants expressed significant concerns The sole criticisms centered around the rapid pace of his speech, which impacted overall comprehensibility.
The following comment is typical
[6] ACT I thought he spoke really fast and I had to listen hard
There were also several positive comments on the coherence of his responses and how he developed his ideas in a clear way
Also graded at band 7, Michael's use of lexical resources were mostly not considered to be adequate to the needs of the workplace, because of a lack of sophistication and variety
P1: I didn't think he had quite the depth…
P2: The use of words was appropriate But there wasn't a great degree of specificity
P1: Yeah, he had a lot of trouble finding appropriate words to use
A principal from Victoria commented positively on his compensatory strategies
I: So you were happy with his range of vocabulary?
P: Yes, I think so, even – look, even where he didn't have all of the words, he actually can qualify what he says, and that was something that I think the first person couldn't He couldn't qualify what he said adequately
Michael exhibited grammatical issues that were widely recognized by the groups, aligning closely with the comments from the principals Key areas of concern included tenses, conjunctions, irregular verb forms, modal auxiliaries, and noun-verb correspondence However, the principals did not specifically address issues related to articles and word order, which were noted by the marker.
Opinions varied on whether the issues at hand warranted exclusion or were outweighed by other considerations Communication skills, particularly the ability to convey messages effectively with available resources, were frequently regarded as distinct from the accuracy expected of a language model.
P: So I don't think any student would have difficulty understanding him I don't think any parent would have difficulty understanding him Is his grammar correct? No, I think it's problematic But that's not always what makes the difference in the communication
However, it was clear that prior experience played a role in the principal’s judgement, as the following comment from one ACT focus group shows
I: The grammar you've mentioned there's a few problems
I: But do you think they're too serious to give him a job as a teacher?
P1: Well I've had worse than that in a school
Writing
Participants in the six focus groups were invited to comment on three sets of writing samples provided by
IELTS Each candidate’s sample set of writing included a response to the same IELTS Academic Task One and
In Task Two, principals assessed candidates' writing through two distinct text types: a 150-word report analyzing a diagram and a 250-word opinion essay Due to confidentiality, the specific scripts and examiner comments cannot be shared; however, details of the writing task can be found in Appendix 3.
All focus groups followed a consistent sequence when presenting sample sets, starting with a sample rated as a standard overall 7 by IELTS examiners This was followed by a sample awarded an overall score of 8, and concluded with a sample that varied across criteria, resulting in an overall score of 6.5.
Due to the absence of information regarding the candidates' gender or nationality, it was determined that pseudonyms would not be employed; instead, the samples were designated as 1, 2, and 3.
Participants provided feedback on the candidate's employability, addressing overall impressions and specific comments on various IELTS criteria, excluding Task Completion.
! Individual assessment criteria o Coherence and cohesion o Choice and use of words o Spelling o Grammar
The candidate's writing received an overall IELTS score of 7, consistently achieving 7 across all four assessment criteria This score not only exemplifies a standard IELTS 7 but also qualifies the candidate for teaching positions in Australian public schools, with the exception of New South Wales (NSW) Additionally, independent schools in NSW would have been able to employ him as a teacher for any subject or student level.
The principals largely agreed that the candidate [Sample 1] lacked the necessary English proficiency for employment in a school setting While most participants were unanimous in their rejection of the candidate's employability, a few noted that hiring decisions could also be influenced by the subject area the candidate would teach and any additional skills or qualities they could contribute to the role.
[1] VIC I: The first one that you looked at would be in P1: The really low level?
P1: …the first one was the worst
P2: The first one was the worst
P1: You're telling us that sample 1 got in?
This standard of writing, however, was particularly concerning for principals in the ACT as indicated by the following comments:
[2] ACT P: Won’t happen…Not teaching in my school
In New Zealand, the initial discussion regarding the sample was met with some skepticism, emphasizing the importance of the additional skills being brought to the table In contrast, New South Wales clearly and firmly rejected the sample without hesitation.
P: No, not this one…I wouldn’t let [it] in by any chance
The importance of correct and appropriate writing for employability impacted the majority of principals’ decisions regarding whether a potential teacher could even be considered for employment
P: If I received a letter of application that would have similar features to that [Sample 1]…I’m sorry but that person wouldn’t get past the first letter they wrote…It’d just go into the – put it into to “thanks but no thanks pile and reply”
A principal in Tasmania has indicated a conditional acceptance of a candidate, provided they are not assigned to teach English or any subject that necessitates extensive written language skills.
P: Not English, no, because we would expect them to have a fairly good understanding of that in order to teach the students Because they wouldn't be able to pick up the mistakes in the student work if they're making these mistakes themselves
I: Right, so it's only ok if they [Sample 1] were teaching another subject
A principal in Victoria acknowledged that written documents frequently played a crucial role in the hiring process for teachers The concerns highlighted in application letters often hinted at underlying issues that would later surface once the teacher was on-site.
P: … I won't be employing that person [Sample 1], because I'll pick it up as soon as they step in the door That's how we find out what our people are like
Nearly all principals thought this candidate did not construct a particularly coherent or cohesive argument, or develop the topic with sufficient clarity or depth
P2: …it doesn't really do it justice
P3: As I said, missed out on talking about [inaudible] shallow development even given the limitations, the space and time…no good
P2: …terrible There's a lot to write about in terms of of stuff in that one and that just didn't even go near it
P3: No it didn't, it was not there
Similarly, in NSW, there were negative comments based on this criterion:
P: The thought processes aren't the issue, but when you jam them all into one sentence – and there's, in some of them, four separate ideas – this becomes too complex
In Tasmania, the essay (Task 2) was the revealing sample for one principal’s decision
P: The first answer is okay The second answer there really isn't a – you know in terms of an essay there needs to be a flow and there really isn't
I don't think there's enough flow in there in order to teach English It may be okay for maths or science or some other subjects but not for English
The group in Victoria showed a notable intolerance towards the candidate's writing, as highlighted by a principal's critical remark This principal decided against hiring the candidate due to the evident lack of coherence in their writing.
P: I would be hugely worried appointing someone like this [Sample 1] to any teaching position, because I don't think they could even follow the logic of a staffroom conversation
The principal viewed the candidate's illogical written responses as a sign of inadequate comprehension, leading to the conclusion that the candidate would struggle to engage effectively in school settings This lack of understanding would hinder meaningful participation in staff meetings and result in inappropriate responses to student inquiries.
P: There’s no doubt that in his answer he actually touches on the issue that is raised in the topic, but not in any coherent way So there’s no statement of position…There’s no argument…there is no coherent argument…it’s incredibly muddled thinking…
Principals in Victoria expressed strong disapproval of the reasoning presented in the first writing sample, as evidenced by their comments following a focus group session Their negative feedback was particularly pronounced after learning that the candidate received a score of 7 across all four assessment criteria.
P2: Yeah, it has to be an error, because…
P: It has to be an error…
Research question 3
Speaking
Research on classroom discourse is extensive (Cazden 2001, Sinclair and Coulthard 1975, Spindler 1982), yet much of it predates modern technological advancements This earlier research was based on the premise that classroom interactions may differ significantly from today's experiences.
Teacher-student interactions in the classroom encompass various sub-genres, skills, and processes that rely heavily on spoken language Principals emphasized key areas such as fostering positive relationships, effectively delivering curriculum content, modeling correct spoken language, managing the classroom and maintaining discipline, as well as offering feedback to students regarding their progress and behavior.
Effective curriculum delivery demands that teachers master key language features, including appropriate speed, clear articulation, effective repair strategies, and accurate pronunciation of technical terms Additionally, teachers must demonstrate discourse competence by utilizing cohesive devices and logical sequencing to present content clearly It is also essential for educators to accurately assess students' prior knowledge and abilities, allowing them to adjust their teaching strategies accordingly.
In primary school settings, especially when teaching younger children, it is crucial for teachers to serve as accurate language models, demonstrating correct lexico-grammar and phonology.
Establishing positive relationships with students and effective classroom management requires teachers to master specific language formulas and demonstrate flexibility in their language register Teachers must not only understand formal and informal language but also select the appropriate forms, navigate cultural assumptions regarding teacher-student roles, and project confidence and authority Providing constructive language feedback involves accurately identifying students' errors and delivering corrective feedback sensitively, with careful consideration of formality and directness Additionally, adjusting language complexity to match students' comprehension levels is crucial for effective communication and learning.
Participants observed that technology has significantly transformed classroom requirements, particularly impacting written language more than spoken language They noted that technology alters the curriculum's lexicon by changing the technical language teachers must use Additionally, teaching software can modify procedural language and affect teacher-student interactions, as discourse increasingly relies on information and communications technology (ICT).
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) can lessen dependence on verbal communication Additionally, the integration of presentation software like PowerPoint is transforming lesson planning, promoting collaboration among colleagues instead of isolating the process as an individual task.
Students' increasing familiarity and competence with computer technology can shift the traditional power dynamics between teachers and students, presenting unique professional challenges.
In hierarchical educational systems, the process of correcting spoken language errors for online teaching tools (OTTs) may differ significantly when mediated by technology Language learners often utilize tools like dictaphones or multimedia presentation software to record their speech, which alters the teacher's role in identifying and addressing these errors.
Effective communication within schools relies on spoken language to foster positive relationships among colleagues, participate in meetings, and collaboratively develop teaching materials and assessments Additionally, the ability to adapt language use and employ strategies for clarification and correction is crucial, as different contexts require varying language forms.
Technology has significantly impacted language use in professional collaboration, particularly through software like OneNote, which facilitates the sharing of teaching materials Additionally, the rise of internal email communication has likely diminished the necessity for verbal interactions among colleagues Furthermore, the integration of presentation software in public speaking contexts, such as assemblies, has altered the demands placed on teachers' language skills, leading to a shift in how they communicate.
Effective spoken communication with parents can take place in various contexts, such as casual phone calls and informal conversations in parking lots, primarily aimed at fostering positive relationships and ensuring open lines of communication However, interactions may also center around specific, often serious issues, requiring teachers to navigate the unpredictable aspects of these discussions.
Teacher-parent interviews necessitate high sociolinguistic competence, as educators must effectively communicate students' progress and address parental concerns Conveying information about academic or behavioral issues demands confidence and the ability to interpret subtle cues In multicultural school settings, where parents may have varying levels of English proficiency, the ability to check for comprehension becomes crucial While fluency and clarity are essential for effective communication, accuracy is vital for building and maintaining parental trust in teachers' professionalism Despite advancements in technology, these interactions remain largely unchanged.
Writing
Principals highlighted the critical need for teachers to excel in written communication, both with students and in formal interactions with colleagues and parents They stressed that teachers must provide accurate model texts and complete error-free formal reports This focus on impeccable written English and the challenges of composing school reports overshadowed the reality that many people today accept errors in electronic texts, often relying on computer spell checkers to catch mistakes.
In the classroom, written competency focuses on creating accurate written language models, especially on the board, identifying students' language errors, and providing constructive written feedback The subject area significantly influences the genres of writing taught, with primary teachers required to navigate a broader range of writing styles than their secondary counterparts, albeit with less depth A principal highlighted these distinctions in teaching approaches.
P: …for primary schools, we are generalist teachers
Effective writing requires crafting coherent sentences and identifying those that lack clarity It's essential to recognize when words are misused within a sentence Providing constructive feedback to students is crucial, as it helps them understand why certain sentences or word choices are inappropriate.
To effectively teach primary school students, it is crucial to prioritize accuracy, as their understanding and skills will reflect the precision of the instruction they receive.
Teachers play a crucial role in promoting literacy across all subjects, regardless of their specific Key Learning Area (KLA) It is essential for educators to effectively model written texts to enhance students' understanding and skills in literacy.
Teachers should strive to produce error-free sentences, particularly in subjects like English or History, where modeling extensive written language is essential for effective instruction.
The availability of tools like PowerPoint and various software packages has reduced the necessity for teachers to generate precise language spontaneously and without assistance during classroom instruction.
While this was certainly viewed as helpful, it did sometimes lead to the use of avoidance strategies by teachers and may have prevented them from improving their language competence
Teachers are expected to create precise written teaching materials; however, there is limited information regarding other types of written communication in schools Factors such as the use of spelling and grammar checks, less time pressure on internal documents compared to classroom texts, and a greater tolerance for imperfections in emails may contribute to this oversight.
When sending documents outside the school, it is crucial to maintain a high level of lexico-grammatical and orthographic accuracy Accurate written feedback on students' work is essential, as it not only benefits the students but also shapes the impression parents and caregivers have of the school Errors in grammar and spelling can undermine the teacher's credibility and, by extension, the school's reputation.
The principals predominantly concentrated on the report genre, particularly school reports sent home to parents and caregivers There was significant variation in the checking and monitoring procedures for these reports, which are a crucial aspect of school operations Below are some comments from the principals regarding this matter.
One principal remarked that these school reports were indeed the crux of a general problem as regards writing:
P: I think that you can make do more with the verbal From my perspective, the place that we are coming into real issues with our migrant teachers is their ability to write reports and it's because they have an audience and often a critical audience and our reports are published online, so the parents look at them at home The grandparents can look at them Okay, they may be migrants themselves But I do cringe sometimes when I go in and we have to go back and redo them So for me, that is – that's something that I feel is a weakness, is the written – the ability to write a cohesive good paragraph type report on student achievement
Nearly every school had, therefore, implemented a system for checking teachers’ written reports, describing these texts as being:
P: really complex [formal and specific] documents, even for first language speakers…To be able to say succinctly in plain language what the child – the strengths, trying to translate some of the jargon I think even for first language speakers, it's quite hard
Technological advancements have primarily improved spelling and sentence-level grammar, yet these areas often do not reflect the main challenges students face Additionally, many teachers are not fully utilizing the available technology to enhance learning outcomes effectively.
P: I read all the reports and I correct what I can
During a recent review, I realized that time constraints led me to overlook several important areas in our online materials I encouraged teachers to utilize their printed copies to identify and correct errors, which revealed a significant number of basic grammatical, punctuation, and expression mistakes This experience highlighted the prevalence of avoidable errors in their writing, raising concerns for parents, especially when these teachers are responsible for instructing students in English Parents have every right to be upset when reports contain such fundamental mistakes.
Reports faced difficulties due to cultural expectations surrounding their phrasing, necessitating that teachers become proficient in strategically employing specific formulaic expressions.
Implications of the findings
Research question 1: Findings
1 The degree of autonomy that principals were able to exercise in the selection of their staff varied according to whether the school was government or private, the country and state in which it was located, and the school’s perceived desirability as a place of employment They were also able to offer different levels of support to new staff and this may account for some divergence in their expectations
The principals involved in the study exhibited a significant lack of awareness regarding language proficiency entry requirements and the assessment process for overseas trained teachers (OTTs) While they acknowledged the existence of a testing system, many were unclear about how OTTs were evaluated for workplace readiness Additionally, some principals held misconceptions about the assessment criteria, mistakenly believing that the test measured communicative ability in professional settings as well as pedagogical knowledge and skills.
Volunteering for language assessment studies indicates a unique interest in language among educational managers Notably, most principals showed significant interest in the test materials and band descriptors These insights highlight the importance for employers to gain a deeper understanding of what the IELTS assesses and, equally important, what it does not claim to evaluate.
2 The anecdotes principals told about their experiences indicated that OTTs were often very highly valued in terms of the contribution they could make both in the school and the school community, sometimes due to their high levels of professional knowledge and skill, and sometimes because of factors directly arising from their overseas origins, experience, language and culture
An effective selection test for employment-ready candidates is highly valued as it ensures access to desirable employees who can perform well in the workplace without being hindered by language proficiency issues.
3 The anecdotes also highlighted a large number of problematic areas of communication, and these revealed a complex pattern of interaction amongst the elements of communicative competence that were necessary in this specific workplace context Word and sentence-level language features, (lexico-grammatical, semantic, phonological) interacted with discourse and pragmatic levels, as well as culturally determined assumptions, behaviours, values and beliefs The model we have developed, (Figure 4) indicating these factors and their interactions, could be applied in order to help to dispel unrealistic expectations of what IELTS can be expected to achieve and raise awareness of the need for bridging programs.
Research question 2: Findings
The findings of the second research question and their implications are summed up below
1 The current practice of band 7 speaking being used for professional entry for New Zealand met with universal disapproval There was more agreement with the existing speaking benchmark of 8 for Australia, but this was not universal The high band 8 was considered acceptable but concerns were expressed with the lower one, and the fact that a person with such levels of proficiency in grammar and pronunciation could be allowed to teach caused considerable concern Overall, the idea of an averaged score was not well received, as high achievement in certain of the criteria, notably grammar and pronunciation, were seen as not negotiable
2 The reactions to the writing benchmarks were a unanimous rejection of the band 7 sample This has far-reaching implications as this is the level currently considered acceptable for all states of Australia except
NSW, and all of New Zealand Again, the high 8 was unproblematic but reaction to the low 8 was mixed
These findings indicate that a review of the benchmarks is in order It is hoped that the findings of this study may be taken into account in this review.
Research question 3: Findings
1 The findings of the third research question indicated that the introduction of technology had not changed teachers’ speaking and writing needs in a fundamental way, but had resulted in some shifts in emphasis and relative importance of different modalities Although email may have largely replaced earlier oral communications by phone with parents, parent-teacher evenings continue to be important, and for these situations, school principals have expressed concern about the impression their teachers create, specifically as regards the clarity and comprehensibility of their oral communication skills In addition, although many schools increasingly use iPads and interactive white boards, this has not meant that teachers do not still need to be able to write formal and extremely accurate and appropriate texts; i.e reports So, although spelling and grammar checking is increasingly relied upon for PowerPoint presentations, error-free written language remains an expectation high on a principal’s list of essential criteria as regards employability.
Findings: Themes and conclusion
One theme that emerged was that the principals tended to overestimate what a language proficiency test could be expected to do
Many principals expressed concerns about relying solely on spoken or written English proficiency when making hiring decisions They agreed that while English proficiency tests can help filter out unqualified candidates prior to interviews, they should not be the sole basis for employing a teacher.
Principals suggest that potential employee teachers should undergo a practicum or relevant work experience to enhance their integration into the school community before employment, such as attending staff meetings While meeting minimum standards of English proficiency in both writing and speaking is essential, these experiences are viewed positively, as adequate language skills alone do not guarantee effective teaching practices.
A supervised six-month practicum was regarded as a minimum requirement
In conclusion, principals acknowledge the necessity of a minimum standard of spoken and written English proficiency among teachers, despite their limited understanding of English language testing procedures and score interpretations They recognize that while communication skills in English are essential, they do not guarantee effective teaching; instead, peer support and relevant work experience are crucial for achieving appropriate pedagogy.
Thus, this study has added to the body of knowledge on the consequential aspects of test impact.
Limitations of the study and suggestions for further research
This study involved a sample of school principals, representing diverse teaching contexts and locations However, participant recruitment faced challenges, limiting the selection from a broader pool Consequently, variables such as age, gender, and ethnicity/language background may have influenced responses While qualitative studies typically do not assert strong generalizability, the interviews and focus group discussions revealed consistent key themes and common areas of concern among participants.
This study highlights the employer's perspective on the impact of IELTS as a gatekeeping test, indicating a need for further research due to the involvement of multiple stakeholders Gaining insights from teachers regarding workplace language needs and the necessary support could provide a more comprehensive understanding of this issue, making it a valuable area for future investigation.
One area that may be interesting to investigate is that of the interaction between language competence and teachers’ sense of workplace self-efficacy.
A final reflection on the significance of the findings
The era of maintaining an 'agnostic position' regarding the relationship between test impact and validity has ended Literature strongly supports the notion that test providers hold ethical responsibility when their tests are used for purposes beyond their original intent This understanding is the foundation for our study.
We aim to improve non-specialist test users' understanding of the differences between language competence and other factors affecting workplace effectiveness, highlighting what information a language test can provide and what needs to be assessed through alternative methods.
By considering the possibility of changes to the workplace communication needs brought about by technology, we have highlighted their dynamic nature
This article examines the benchmarks set by external organizations for entry into the professional community, highlighting the significance of these decisions and the necessity for continuous evaluation of their impacts.
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