764 Groundless Paths definition, definiendum, and instances In particular, the instances o f the knowledge o f entities consist o f its nature being endow ed with four features (as in AA IV.29ab) They define it as being the profound training in the knowledge o f entities, which possesses the defining characteristics o f knowledge, distinctiveness, and activity in terms o f the special means and prajñá that make up the know ledge o f entities The same applies to the definitions, definienda, and instances o f the knowledge o f all aspects and the knowledge o f the path 589 The fourteen extremes listed here represent the fourteen “u ndecided” (Skr avyákrta, Tib lung du ma bstan pa) questions that the Buddha refused to settle one way or another Upon being asked by Ánanda about the reason for his silence later, the Buddha answered that such questions are just entirely baseless speculations, but not soteriologically relevant in the sense o f being conducive to liberation from samsáric suffering The Buddhas teachings are not interested in or concerned with the former, but only with the latter For m ore details, see below 590 D3791, fol 07b 5-7 and D3807, fol.101a.2-6 591 D 4035, fol 70b 2-3 592 D3787, fol 136a.2 593 Here the underlying Sanskrit term for “co m in g forth” ( unmiñjita ; lit “o p en in g one’s eyes”) is rendered differently in Tibetan (below, it is also rendered as “o p en in g ”) As explained, in this context it m eans that the mind com es forth/opens u p/m oves by virtue o f engaging certain objects in an affirmative manner 594 D3801, fol 155a.4-6 595 N o te that here the text uses “being closed” not in the sense as explained so far, but simply as the counterpart o f “opening” (which is a different term for “com ing forth”) Thus, as the context makes clear and as explained below, here “being closed” does not refer to the third one am ong the four terms under discussion, but to the second one 596 This refers to the Vátslputrlyas, w ho asserted the existence o f an ultimately real person in this way 597 D4060, fol 34b.5 598 PGSD (pp 21-2 ) defines what is undecided as “the afflicted prajñá o f mistaken d is crimination that is motivated by views about a self and whose questions, w h ich result from it, cannot be answered.” Undecided (or neutral; the Tibetan lung du ma bstan pa can mean both) does not mean to be so merely by virtue o f representing a com m o n locus o f what is undecided and views because com m on loci with views may exist even in the m ind streams o f persons w ho realized identitylessness, but such com m o n loci not have to be what is undecided because said m ind streams contain com m on loci o f view s and nonvirtue As for the individual natures o f the fourteen undecided views, (a) in the four views o f the self and the world being permanent, impermanent, both, or neither, “s e lf ’ refers to a person and “the world,” to the five skandhas as the bases o f designating such a self The first one am ong these four view s represents the view that the self and the skandhas o f the last life exist in this life.The second one is the view that such is not the case The third one is the v iew that, in term s o f their nature, the self and the skandhas o f this life exist from before, while on the temporary level they arise newly The fourth one is the view that the self and the skandhas are inexpressible as either permanent or impermanent, (b) A m ong the four views that the self and the world have an end, not have an end, both, or neither, the first one is the v iew that the skandhas o f the next life not arise in dependence on the skandhas o f this life The second one is the view that the self and the skandhas o f this life will also exist in future lives The third one is the view that the nature o f the self and the skandhas o f the next life is to be permament, while on the temporary level they are impermanent The fourth one is the view that the self and the skandhas o f future lives are inexpressible as either having N otes 765 an en d or n ot having an end (c) A m on g the four views that tathagatas still manifest after hav ing passed away, not manifest, both, or neither, the first one is the view that sentient beings, after having died, still exist in a nonm anifest manner The second one is the view that, once sentient beings have died, their continuum o f similar type is severed The third one is the view that, after having died, the nature o f sentient beings is to be permament, while on the temporary level they are impermanent The fourth one is the view that sentient beings are inexpressible as either arising or not arising as a self after they have died Views (a l), (b2), and ( c l) represent mainly the view o f the Samkhyas because they assert that the self o f the last life exists in this one and that the self o f this life exists in the next one Their v iew is called “com in g forth” because, according to it, the self and the skandhas o f the last life com e forth into this life and those o f this life transit into the next life V iew s (a2), (b l), and (c2) represent mainly the view o f the Ayatas because they not accept that this life arises in dependence on a former one and that the next one arises in dependence on this one Their view is called “being withdraw n” because all suffering and happiness are withdrawn into this life Views (a3), (b3), and (c3) represent mainly the view o f the Nirgranthas because they assert that the nature o f all phenom ena is to be permanent, while on the temporary level they are impermanent Since they assert that this is like being scattered, their view is called “being scattered.” V iew s (a4), (b4), and (c4) represent mainly the view o f the Vatslputrlyas because they assert an inexpressible self Their view is called “being closed” because they assert that the self and the skandhas are inexpressible as the same or different, perm anent or impermanent, and so on V iew (d 1) is the v iew o f the VaiSesikas because they assert that the life-force is the self and that the self possesses form V iew (d2) is the view o f the Samkhyas because they assert the self as being cognition The view s o f “com ing forth” and “being scattered” engage their objects through the aspect o f affirmation because they are views about perm anence that superim pose certain features onto their objects The views o f “being w ithdraw n” and “being closed” engage their objects through the aspect o f negation because they are view s about extinction that deny certain features o f their objects The reason why all these view s are called “undecided” is that the answers by the Buddha, when questioned about them, did not decide on them one way or the other His reason for not doing so is that he had in m ind that all these questions are based on the notion o f a self and that, even if he had refuted that self, it would not have been o f benefit to the questioners The reasons for these fourteen views containing all sixty-two views o f the tirthikas as described in the Brahmajalasutta (Digha Nikdya 1.12-1.46; trans in M Walshe 1995, pp 73-90; P1021, pp 286.2.8ff.) are as follows The topics in the questions about all o f these views are tw ofold—the nature o f a self and its dis tinctive features The tw o view s under (d) that are based on the body and the lif e-force are in terms o f cutting through doubts about the nature o f a self As for the distinctive features o f that self, the four views under (a) are in terms o f cutting through doubts about a starting point of afflicted phenomena; the four under (b), in terms o f cutting through doubts about an end point o f afflicted phenomena; and the four under (c), in terms o f cutting through doubts about an end point o f purified phenom ena The reason for said questioners not asking about situations in the present is that these are easy to understand The reason for their not asking any questions in terms o f cutting through doubts about a starting point o f purified phenomena is that one is able to understand this through having cut through doubts about an end point o f afflicted ph e nomena In brief, the m ahayana path o f preparation o f realizing the basic nature o f “com ing forth,” “being withdraw n,” and so on represents the defining characteristic o f knowledge o f the training in the knowledge o f entities because it is the yoga o f bodhisattvas o f realizing the basic nature o f entities MCG’s (fol 99a.4-99b.6) presentation and division o f the fourteen undecided views corresponds to PSD above, except for explicitly categorizing “being scattered” as entailing both negation and affirmation and “being closed” as negating both affirmation and negation (as described above, PSD categorizes them as just affirmation and negation, respectively) In due order, the reasons for the terms “com in g forth” and so on are as follows Since the view o f the Samkhyas is far out or a far extreme, it is like “com in g forth/m oving.” Since, in the view o f the 766 Groundless Paths Ayatas, there is nothing but this life, it is like “being withdrawn.” The view o f the Nirgranthas is like “being scattered” between the two aspects o f affirmation and negation Since the hypocriti cal view o f the Vatsiputrlyas is to not assert anything out o f fear o f m aking mistakes, it is like “being closed.” 599 D4090, foL 16a.3-4 600 D4049, fol 92b.4 601 VI.25a 602 VI.25a 603 D4049, fol 92b.3-4 604 D4090, fol 226a 1-2 605 D ,fo l 45a l-2 606 Ibid., fol 145a.5 607 D 3796, fol 71a.5-6 608 PGSD (pp 2 -2 ) divides th e physical supports o f the factors conducive to liberation into those in which they can arise through one’s own power (according to Abhidharmakoia VI.25ab, humans on the three continents [i.e., except Uttarakuru]) and those in which they can arise through the power o f others (all beings except for the gods w ithout discrim ination in the form realm and all in the formless realm) The mental supports can be a one-pointed m ind o f the desire realm or any o f the six grounds o f dhyana Said factors cannot rely on states o f m ind o f the formless realm because they must primarily arise due to the power o f scriptures T he definition o f the factors conducive to liberation is “the clear realizations o f the persons w h o have entered the path that arise before the arising o f the path o f preparation in the systems o f the respective yànas.” They are called that way because they represent the path that is partially c o n cordant with nirvàna The distinctive qualities o f the path o f accumulation consist o f its basis (being endowed with pure ethics), its branches (controlling the sense gates with regard to attach m ent and so on as well as moderation in food), the feature o f one’s m ind stream being matured (making efforts in the yogas o f studying, and reflecting on, the Buddha’s words in their twelve branches), the feature o f its nature (its consisting o f the roots o f virtue o f studying, reflecting, and meditating), and the feature o f its function (swiftly accom plishing the direct realization o f the actuality o f the basic nature) As for the mahàyàna path o f accumulation being classified in term s o f faculties (AA IV.34cd), unsurpassable enlightenm ent is easy to be realized by those with sharp faculties because it is difficult for them to revert from their course toward enlighten ment However, this does not mean that their having sharp faculties is equivalent to their being irreversible because there is a com m on locus between their having sharp faculties and their having an uncertain disposition On the other hand, unsurpassable enlightenm ent is harder to realize by bodhisattvas o f dull faculties because it is possible that they temporarily revert from their course toward enlightenment However, this does not mean that their h aving dull faculties is equivalent to their being reversible because there is the com m o n locus between their having dull faculties and their mahàyàna disposition being certain MCG (fols 107b 6-108 a.l) explains that, in general, the factors conducive to merit consist o f the virtues o f those who have not entered the (Buddhist) path, while the factors conducive to liberation consist o f the virtues that merge with, or benefit, the liberation that is the freedom from suffering 609 D3793, fol 114a.5-114b.l 610 D3796, fols b l-7 , a l- , and 85a.5 611 D3794, fols 206a.4-207a.6 Notes 767 612 D3795, fol 270a.3-270b.3 613 PGSD (pp 27-3 ) explains the m anner in which the paths o f preparation, seeing, and familiarization are taught in the AA as follows The manners in which they are taught in the first, second, fourth, and fifth chapters are easy to understand In the third chapter, the paths o f preparation and familiarization are not taught explicitly, but they are taught implicitly in terms o f their m eaning because this chapter teaches both the remedial knowledge o f entities and the knowledge o f entities that is an antagonistic factor in a com plete manner In the sixth chapter (the serial training), said three paths are not explicitly mentioned in the AA, but they are taught by Haribhadra’s com m entaries in a supplementary manner because “serial activity,” “serial training,” and “serial practice” (as described in the prajnaparamita sutras; CZ, p 549) are explained by respectively matching them with the paths o f preparation, seeing, and familiariza tion For the Aloka (D 3791, fol 314a.2) and the Vivrti (D3793, fol a l-2 ) state in the context o f the serial training in recollecting the Buddha that “the three aspects o f the recollection o f the Buddha that bear the characteristic o f being without recollection ultimately are, in due order, expressed as the factors conducive to penetration, the path o f seeing, and the path o f familiar ization.” As for the proofs that all the paths o f preparation, seeing, and familiarization as they are taught in the first six chapters o f the AA are the fully qualified paths o f preparation, seeing, and familiarization since there are no significant doubts about those taught in the first three chapters being the fully qualified ones, there is no need to provide proofs for them As for the path o f preparation in the chapter on the complete training in all aspects, it is the fully qualified path o f preparation because (a) the factors conducive to liberation (AA IV.34) are explained as causes and (b) the path o f preparation (IV 35-3 ) as their direct results Reason (a) applies because the Vivrti (ibid., fol 113b.2) explains the five mental factors such as confidence in the context o f the factors conducive to liberation as not (yet) having the nature o f the five purified faculties (on the first two levels o f the path o f preparation) Reason (b) applies because the Vivrti (ibid., fol 113b.5) says with respect to AA IV 35-37 that “the factors conducive to pen etration arise in those who possess the enthusiasm o f the factors conducive to liberation having arisen.” The path o f preparation in the chapter on the culm inating training is the fully quali fied path o f preparation because both the Aloka (D3791, fol 88b 3-4) and the Vivrti (D3793, fol 121b.5 - ) say w ith regard to AA V l - , “It should be understood that the sign s and so on, in du e order, represent the natures o f the four factors conducive to penetration (such as heat) within the culm inating clear realization.” The path o f preparation in the chapter on the serial training is the fully qualified path o f preparation because it is taught there that it is preceded by the culm inating training and that the serial training consists o f all the trainings o f familiar izing with all aspects o f the three knowledges according to their progressive order The same reasons also apply for the paths o f seeing and familiarization in the chapters on the first three trainings being fully qualified Someone may say, “Then it follows that the passages in the first six chapters that teach on the path o f preparation have the flaw o f being repetitious because they teach the fully qualified path o f preparation six times The same goes for the paths o f see ing and familiarization.” In our ow n system, the answer to that is as follows There is no flaw o f the paths o f preparation, seeing, and familiarization being taught in a repetitious manner in the first three chapters because these chapters entail different purposes and manners o f teaching them The purposes are that said chapters teach said three paths for the sake o f understanding that, in due order, the three types o f realization through the prajna arising from meditation (realizing, in the m anner o f m eaning generalities, that entities, paths, and aspects lack any real arising, realizing this in a direct manner, and realizing it through familiarizing in a continuous m anner with what was already realized) are com plete in the paths o f preparation, seeing, and familiarization, respectively The different manners o f teaching said three paths in said three chapters are to teach them by way o f the isolates o f realizing that all aspects, all paths, and all entities, respectively, lack any real arising There is no flaw o f the paths o f preparation, seeing, 768 Groundless Paths and familiarization being taught in a repetitious manner in the chapters on the first three train ings either because these also entail different purposes and manners o f teaching The different purposes in these chapters are that they teach said three paths for the sake o f understanding that all three manners o f familiarization (familiarizing in a com bined manner with the aspects o f all three knowledges as being the threefold lack o f arising, familiarizing with this in a manner that is higher than the one on the path o f accumulation, and familiarizing with it in a progressive manner in order to increase realization further and further) are respectively com plete in the paths o f preparation, seeing, and familiarization The different manners o f teaching said three paths in said three chapters are that they respectively teach them by way o f the isolates o f famil iarizing in a com bined m anner with the aspects o f all three know ledges as being the threefold lack o f arising and so on The Àlokà (D3791, fol 274a.2-3) says that the path o f preparation and so on are taught in each one o f the clear realizations by virtue o f the divisions o f familiarizing with all aspects, paths, and entities Thus, it explicitly refutes that said three paths are taught in a repetitious m anner in the first three chapters, w hich im plies the same for the chapters on the first three trainings As for the answer o f others to the above objection that the paths o f prepara tion, seeing, and familiarization are taught in a repetitious manner, they say that the reason in this objection (all paths being fully qualified) does not apply For though the paths o f prepara tion, seeing, and familiarization in the first three chapters represent the fully qualified ones, said paths in the chapters on the first three trainings are nominal ones The m anner in which they are nominal is explained in the Àlokà (ibid., 247a.3-4) as follows: “In the three such as the clear realization o f all aspects, through the levels o f familiarization being m ore and m ore special, the lesser, m edium , and great uncontam inated wisdom s that consist o f the path which is special in all aspects arise in a progressive manner.” Therefore, this second passage does not represent Haribhadra’s ow n words, but presents the position o f his teacher Vairocanabhadra because the Àlokà (ibid., foL 247a.5-6) says on this passage, “Therefore, [these three wisdoms] are taught through the conventional terms ‘the factors conducive to penetration’ and so on in order to refute their simultaneous arising This is [the position] o f som e [others].” In brief, according to Vairocanabhadra’s position, the paths o f preparation, seeing, and familiarization taught in the chapters on the first three trainings are nominal ones For in the context o f the com plete training in all aspects, it is the lesser, m edium , and great w isdom s o f the eighth bhumi that are taught by way o f respectively labeling them with the names o f the paths o f preparation, seeing, and fam il iarization In the contexts o f the culm inating training and the serial training, the same labeling applies to the lesser, m edium , and great wisdom s o f the ninth and tenth bhumis, respectively 614 The Sanskrit lifigam and the corresponding Tibetan rtags mean both “sign ” and “reason.” 615 LSSP/PSD have la (“in ”), but las (“from ”) seems t o make m ore sense here 616 LSSP/PSD and the Tibetan o f the Abhidharmakoiabhasya o n V.59 say literally, “not seiz- ing the heat o f food.” The translation follows the Sanskrit o f the latter ( bhakte samata) 617 V.59 618 V 13-15ab 619 D3787, fol 75b 1-2 620 D4049, fol 99b.2-3 621 D4053, fol 66a.6-7 and D4054, fol 229a.6-7 622 D9, vol ka, fol 240a.3-6 623 I could not locate this explanation in either o f the tw o Brhattikds, but m ost o f it cor- responds to what the Viniscayasamgraham (D4038, fols 94a.2-4 and 102a 1-2) says—in the hlnayana, the first one corresponds to the path o f preparation; the second one, to abiding stream-enterers up through the vajralike samadhi; and the third one, to the path o f nonlearning ... for the answer o f others to the above objection that the paths o f prepara tion, seeing, and familiarization are taught in a repetitious manner, they say that the reason in this objection (all... power o f scriptures T he definition o f the factors conducive to liberation is ? ?the clear realizations o f the persons w h o have entered the path that arise before the arising o f the path o. .. there are no significant doubts about those taught in the first three chapters being the fully qualified ones, there is no need to provide proofs for them As for the path o f preparation in the