85 Abbreviations and acronyms A Abbreviations pronounced as individual letters e.g i.e AD BC EU ID NB IQ PTO USB FAQ ASAP VIP RSVP UFO B [before the Common Era] European Union identity document note well, from nota bene (Latin), used as a warning or to point out something important intelligence quotient: a way of measuring people’s intelligence using a system of numbers please turn over Universal Serial Bus: a type of connection between a computer and an electronic device frequently asked questions as soon as possible very important person please reply (used on invitations, from French, répondez s’il vous plt) /juːefˈəʊ/ unidentified flying object; often used to talk about an alien spaceship Shortened and blended words bedsit sitcom sci-fi info biodata biopic wi-fi C for example, from exempli gratia (Latin) that is, from id est (Latin) the year of our Lord, from Anno Domini (Latin), used in the Christian calendar to count years since the birth of Christ; many people prefer CE as an alternative [Common Era] before Christ, used to count the years before the birth of Christ; many people prefer BCE a flat with only one room which is a bedroom and a sitting room short for situational comedy: a kind of humorous TV programme /ˈsaɪfaɪ/ science fiction information /ˈbaɪəʊ deɪtə/ biographical data: details about someone’s life, job and achievements /ˈbaɪəʊpɪk/ biographical picture: a film about the life of a real person /ˈwaɪfaɪ/ wireless fidelity: wireless connection for computers and electronic communications Acronyms Some abbreviations are acronyms, i.e they are formed from the first letters (or occasionally syllables) of a word or series of words and are pronounced as a word AIDS /eɪdz/ acquired immune deficiency syndrome NATO /ˈneɪtəʊ/ North Atlantic Treaty Organisation PIN personal identification number (used on credit cards, bank cards, etc.) VAT value-added tax (a kind of tax on goods), pronounced /væt/ or /ˌviːeɪˈtiː/ D Abbreviations used in academic writing and bibliographies fig figure (a picture or drawing, often with a number, in a book or other document) Example: See fig ed (plural eds.) editor/editors (often used in bibliographical references) p (plural pp.) page/pages Examples: see p 26, see pp 58–61 (from page 58 to page 61) cf compare Example: Carter (1997) investigated core vocabulary (cf Lee 1987) et al and others (used in bibliographical references to refer to a book or article with several authors, usually three or more) Example: O’Keeffe et al (2010) discuss this problem 176 English Vocabulary in Use Advanced Exercises 85.1 Insert the correct Latin abbreviations from A opposite into the gaps This helmet dates from 500 It’s over 1,500 years old The file extension, the letters that follow its name, such as docx, jpg, mp3, tells you what type of file it is Type your message here , press ‘save’ before pressing ‘send’, or you may lose your message Fruits, lemons, pears or grapes, are sometimes added when cooking poultry 85.2 How are the abbreviations and shortened expressions in these sentences pronounced? What they stand for? 10 11 12 85.3 Answer the questions 85.4 NATO is an alliance of North American and European countries Their FAQ page is completely useless You can never find what you’re looking for She’s very fond of sci-fi films I prefer biopics I forgot my PIN and couldn’t get into my bank account online Do you believe in UFOs? Write back asap Most of the cafés in town have free wi-fi The VAT rate is different in different countries of the EU A lot of people now prefer to use BCE instead of BC AIDS spread rapidly in the 1980s He manages to get into the VIP lounge at most airports I don’t know how he does it Where’s the USB connection on this laptop? I can’t find it If someone asks you to send them your biodata, what will you send them? Which is likely to be cheaper to rent in the same street in a city, a two-bedroom flat or a bedsit? If someone asks you for ID, what they want? If you’re watching a sitcom on TV, are you more likely to want to cry or to laugh? If a party invitation says RSVP, what should you do? If someone asks you to take an IQ test, what they want to find out? If you see PTO on a document, what should you next? What would you expect to find if you clicked on ‘live traffic info’ on a website? Correct these false statements about academic abbreviations Smedley and Jones (eds.) means Smedley and Jones wrote the book or article referred to See fig means look at number in a list Markov et al means Markov wrote a book or article with another person See pp 33–37 means see the information on page 33 and on page 37 Cf Oswald (1987) means ‘read Oswald (1987)’ English Vocabulary in Use Advanced 177 86 Prefixes: creating new meanings A Common prefixes in- (and its variations im-, il-, ir-) can make a word negative, as in inappropriate, incapable, inaccuracy, inability and imperfect mis- means wrongly or badly, e.g misbehave and misuse [use in the wrong way or for the wrong purpose] out- suggests being greater or better than something, e.g outnumber [to be larger in number than another group] and outweigh [be greater or more important than something else] re- has the meaning of ‘do again’ as in reconsider [think again about a decision or opinion], redevelop and rethink [change what you think about something or what you plan to do] e- has the meaning of ‘electronic’ as in e-commerce [buying and selling goods online], e-reader [an electronic device for reading books] and e-cigarettes [cigarettes that use water vapour rather than tobacco] eco- has the meaning of ‘good for the environment’, as in eco-friendly cleaning products, an eco-city [using energy efficiently and producing very little pollution] and an eco-warrior [an informal word for someone who campaigns to protect the environment] B Preposition-based prefixes over- may indicate (a) an excess of something, (b) being above something, or (c) going across something (a) excess That film was overrated in my view [people said it was better than it really was] It was a bad restaurant, with an overpriced menu [too high prices] (b) above Several of our neighbour’s large trees overhang our garden [their branches go over our garden] Our garden is overshadowed by the block of flats next door [the flats cast a shadow over our garden] She always felt overshadowed by her older, more successful, sister [metaphorical (c) across use, felt less important than] He overstepped the mark when he said that [crossed a barrier into offensive/ unacceptable behaviour] Will you be staying overnight? [cross from one day to the next] under- may indicate (a) less than the desired amount, (b) something below another thing, or (c) some kind of negative behaviour (a) less Don’t underestimate the time it will take [think it will be less than it really is] The company is seriously understaffed [lacking staff] (b) below It’s quite wet underfoot Did it rain last night? [on the ground, beneath your feet] The underlying question is a very difficult one [the deeper question] (c) negative I wish you would not undermine everything I [attack, weaken] He did it in a very underhand way [secretly and possibly dishonestly] up- can suggest a change of some kind, often positive The airline upgraded me to business class [changed my ticket to a better class] There has been an upturn in the economy [change for the better] C Less frequent prefixes con-/com- often suggests mixing things together (often in verbs of communication) converse commiserate condolences congeal contaminate pro- can often suggest pushing something forward or increasing it promote proliferate procrastinate procreate e- can give the idea of something coming out of something They were ejected from the restaurant for bad behaviour [thrown out; formal] The machine emitted a loud noise and then stopped working [gave out; formal] 178 English Vocabulary in Use Advanced Exercises 86.1 Choose a word from A opposite to complete each sentence 10 11 They are planning to the area around the old bus station It is to use informal language in a formal essay The yes votes the no votes by two to one Ivan’s English is excellent but he still tends to idioms occasionally We all hope you will your decision to turn down our offer of a job I’m afraid I only have an understanding of the situation myself These pupils not usually in class An to drive is a serious problem for anyone in this line of business Lance seems to be of understanding even the simplest instructions Paula lost marks in her science test because of the of her measurements More and more businesses use the internet in order to sell their products, so is becoming more and more important to the economy 12 More farmers are now choosing to use fertilisers that don’t harm the environment or wildlife 86.2 Decide which of the meanings of over- and under- are most obvious in the words in bold Use the labels (a), (b) or (c), as in B opposite Circle the correct letter Use a dictionary if necessary 86.3 a a a a a a a a b b b b b b b b c c c c c c c c Rewrite these sentences using words from the opposite page 10 86.4 I really think she overstated her case, and lost a lot of sympathy The plane’s undercarriage failed to open and it crashed A detailed list of awards is given overleaf He has a very overbearing personality The project was underfunded from the outset During the cruise, a child fell overboard and drowned Priya’s contribution to the project has sometimes been underrated Phil always gets an underling to the tasks he doesn’t enjoy There are more women than men on my course Women outnumber men on my course The hotel gave me a luxury room instead of the ordinary one I’d booked Would you like to spend the night there or come back the same day? The problem that lies under the surface is a very serious one For me, the advantages of air travel are more significant than the disadvantages I think this hotel charges too much It’s slippery walking just here Be careful The company experienced a rise in popularity after it changed its name I felt that what she said was critical of my position and weakened it somewhat It would be a mistake to think Frances was less intelligent than she really is Match these definitions to a word in C opposite Use a dictionary if necessary 10 to keep delaying something that must be done to make something poisonous or less pure to throw out with force suddenly to increase a lot in number to sympathise with someone’s unhappiness to change from a liquid or soft state to a solid or hard state to produce young (formal) to chat (formal) to send out (a beam, noise, smell or gas) to encourage people to buy or use something English Vocabulary in Use Advanced 179 87 Suffixes: forming new words A Productive suffixes Many suffixes (and prefixes too) are productive [still used to create new words] You might feel adventurous enough to try coining some words of your own! [creating] The meaning of the example words below is clear from the meanings of the root and the suffix -able can be used productively, whereas -ible never is It combines with verbs to form adjectives Note that -able means ‘can be’: a washable jacket [one that can be washed] disposable nappies predictable results avoidable problems a manageable situation -conscious combines with nouns to form adjectives that describe people who consider one aspect of their lives especially important: health-conscious person class-conscious society safetyconscious company time-conscious workforce -free combines with nouns describing something undesirable to form adjectives to describe nouns without that undesirable aspect: stress-free life tax-free shop additive-free food -rich combines with nouns (often chemical or organic substances) to form adjectives to describe nouns with a lot of that substance: fibre-rich diet calcium-rich foods -led combines with nouns and nationality adjectives to form adjectives describing things that are controlled or influenced by the original noun or nationality: community-led initiative studentled protest worker-led uprising -minded combines with adjectives or nouns to form new adjectives describing people with particular characters, opinions or attitudes: like-minded friends [with similar interests] career-minded young women money-minded managers high-minded [having high moral standards] -proof combines with nouns to form adjectives describing things that can resist the damage or difficulty caused by that noun: ovenproof dish waterproof jacket soundproof room idiotproof instructions -related combines with nouns to form adjectives to describe one thing as connected with another: stress-related absence from work age-related illness -ridden combines with nouns to form adjectives describing people or things with a lot of that noun: guilt-ridden person crime-ridden city bedridden [a person who has to stay in bed because they are ill] -worthy combines with nouns to form adjectives that describe people or things that merit whatever the original noun refers to: newsworthy incident [worth reporting in the news] praiseworthy action/pupil [deserving praise] Language help The first part of words with -ed, -related, -conscious, etc is usually a singular rather than a plural noun, e.g university-led, crime-related, age-conscious (NOT universities-led, crimes-related, agesconscious) B Suffixes in different word classes -ly is not only an adverb ending, it also forms quite a few adjectives: lively children [full of energy] costly holiday [expensive] leisurely walk [relaxed] miserly man [mean with money] -ant is most familiar as an adjective ending (relevant information, distant hills) but it can also make nouns from verbs to describe a person: an applicant for a job an insurance claimant a police informant a quiz contestant an occupant of a house -en makes adjectives from nouns (woollen jumper, golden hair) but it also makes verbs from adjectives: to moisten your lips to sweeten tea a situation worsens a face reddens 180 English Vocabulary in Use Advanced Exercises 87.1 87.2 Complete the table below with the correct phrases suffix new example in phrase meaning -able a debatable issue an issue that can be debated -conscious employers who are very aware of money -free a city centre without any cars -rich a drink which provides a lot of energy -led fashion that is dictated by the French -minded friends who are very focused on sports -proof a car with protection against bullets -related crime that is connected in some way with drugs -ridden a society where there is a lot of poverty -worthy a person who deserves others’ trust Match each adjective with the two nouns it best collocates with in the box example student-led: rebellion, demonstration 87.3 additive-free avoidable disposable guilt-ridden high-minded dust calorie drinks mistake room criminal booth illness country problems economy work The weather can’t be predicted (-able) The weather is unpredictable Poisonous mushrooms can be easily identified (-able) He thinks so much about his career that he has no time for his family (-minded) The new speed cameras are supposed to be indestructible by vandals (-proof) During the Civil War, the country was totally overcome by terror (-ridden) The soil on that farm contains a lot of nutrients (-rich) The bank decided that he did not have enough income to allow him credit (-worthy) Using a suffix from A, make up words with the following meanings food for vegetarians must be this connected with class containing a lot of vitamins 87.6 knives and forks income rebellion delay foods expression glove story speech personality dish demonstration principles Rewrite the sentences using the suffix given in brackets 87.5 newsworthy oil-rich ovenproof soundproof stress-related Which of the suffixes in A opposite could combine with the words in the box below to make new words? Note that there is more than one possibility for each word child 87.4 10 can be dry-cleaned very aware of people’s clothes initiated by the government Are the following words adverbs, adjectives or verbs? Use a dictionary if necessary dampen friendly dearly silken roughen masterly kindly darken English Vocabulary in Use Advanced 181 88 Word-building and word-blending A Common well-established word parts Many literary or academic words in English are formed using Latin and ancient Greek prefixes and roots Many English speakers are not aware of the meanings of the word parts listed here, but knowing them can help you to understand and remember new words word part meaning example auto- self an autonomous region [self-ruling] bio- life, living things biodegradable packaging [able to decay naturally] cyber- relating to computers and robots a cybercafé [café where customers can use computers and the internet] de- opposite action demotivate [make someone feel less interested and enthusiastic about something] mono- single, one monocycle [cycle with just one wheel] -graph- writing a monograph [long article or short book on a single subject that the writer has studied for a long time] -gress- step, walk, go a congress [a conference, i.e a meeting where people come together] -ics an area of study or knowledge obstetrics [the study of pregnancy and childbirth] -phon- sound phonetics [the study of human speech sounds] -ology study criminology [the study of crime and criminals] pre- (opp = post-) before prepaid tickets [tickets paid for in advance] retro- back, backwards retroactive law [taking effect from a date in the past] techno- relating to advanced machines technophobia [fear of using technology such as computers] tele- over a distance telepathic experience [feeling something from a distance] Language help Although the word parts above will help you to understand words, you cannot use them as freely to form new words as the prefixes and suffixes in Units 86 and 87 B Blends An interesting, if much less common, way of forming words is by combining two well-established words, e.g brunch = a meal that is a combination of breakfast and lunch heliport: a place where helicopters can land and take off (helicopter + airport) smog: polluted fog (smoke + fog) motel: a roadside hotel for people travelling by car (motor + hotel) webinar: a seminar delivered over the internet via a designated website (web + seminar) guesstimate: an approximate calculation (guess + estimate; verb = to guesstimate) docudrama: TV programme that dramatises real historical events (documentary + drama) breathalyser: a device to find out how much alcohol a person has drunk (breath + analyse) 182 English Vocabulary in Use Advanced Exercises 88.1 Using information from the table in A, explain the basic meanings of these words 88.2 to retrogress graphology to destabilise autograph Look at the following word parts Use a dictionary to find two new words beginning with these and write them in your vocabulary notebook Choose only words that use the meanings studied in this unit Postman, for example, clearly has not been formed using the prefix post- meaning ‘after’ 88.3 biography = writing about a life monologue telephone autobiography phonology mono techno retro tele auto pre post bio Rewrite these sentences, replacing the underlined words with a word that includes the word part given Use a dictionary if necessary I had to put off my trip to Japan (post) I had to postpone my trip to Japan She asked the singer for his signature on the back of her table napkin (graph) She took a degree in the science of crime at Stockholm University (ology) The novel is largely based on the writer’s own life (bio) It’s an exhibition looking back at the painter’s life and work (retro) He believes in the idea that you can cure yourself by suggesting to yourself that you are cured (auto) Working at home and keeping in contact with the office by phone, text-messaging and email is now quite common (tele) Some English philosophers in the 19th century believed in the abolition of industry (de) Crime committed through the internet is a huge cause for concern (cyber) 88.4 Rewrite these sentences, replacing the underlined word with an explanatory phrase Most of the time, planes fly on autopilot 88.5 Most of the time planes fly automatically, controlled by a computer rather than the pilot The firm makes job applicants a graphology test The school always takes very seriously any case of cyberbullying Matt’s a bit of a technophobe He’s giving a paper at a pre-conference event in Spain She did a course in informatics What words have been combined to make these blends? What you think they mean? infomercial podcast camcorder veggieburger swimathon freeware English Vocabulary in Use Advanced 183 89 English: a global language A The origins of English vocabulary LANGUAGE ONLINE Some languages not easily accept words from other languages into their lexicon1, but English has always welcomed them It is estimated that English vocabulary has its sources2 in at least 120 languages Some languages have, of course, provided English with more words than others English started out with a basic Anglo-Saxon3 word stock4 Viking5 and Norman6 invaders from the 9th century onwards enriched7 the language enormously with large numbers of words brought from their own languages The Vikings brought new words of Germanic origin while the Normans spoke a form of French Both sets of invaders had an enormous impact on8 English vocabulary, explaining why English may sometimes seem to have several words for the same basic concept9 During the Renaissance of the 15th to the 17th centuries, scholars introduced many words of classical origin10 And throughout history, English speakers’ contact with the world as explorers, scientists, traders, pirates and holiday-makers has had linguistic consequences11 in a wealth of new words from every part of the world that they reached These words taken from other languages are sometimes referred to as loanwords or borrowings vocabulary (specialist term) where something comes from Old English set of words Norse, from the north of Europe, e.g Denmark or Norway B C from Normandy, a region in the north of France made richer influenced, had an effect on idea 10 from Latin or Ancient Greek 11 results affecting language English words from other languages language word meaning phrase Arabic amber yellowy-orange substance originating from tree resin and used in jewellery an amber necklace Dutch roster list of people’s turns for jobs the cooking roster Farsi tabby grey and brown stripy cat our old tabby German gimmick an amusing or unusual way of attracting attention advertising gimmicks Greek tonic medicine to make you feel stronger and better take a tonic Hindi cot child’s bed with high vertical sides sleep in a cot Icelandic mumps a childhood illness have mumps Japanese karaoke type of entertainment where ordinary people sing to popular music a karaoke machine Portuguese palaver unnecessary trouble What a palaver! Russian intelligentsia social class of intellectuals 19th-century intelligentsia Spanish hammock net and used as a bed sleep in a hammock Turkish turban type of men’s headwear, made from a long piece of cloth wear a turban False friends Some English words may look like words in your language but have a different meaning Such words are known as false friends, e.g the German word Gift looks like the English word gift [present] but actually means poison in German The English word sympathetic resembles a word meaning, simply, nice in many other European languages, but in English sympathetic has a much narrower meaning [understanding and caring about someone else’s suffering] Note also that the pronunciation of a word borrowed into English may be quite different from its pronunciation in its language of origin 184 English Vocabulary in Use Advanced Exercises 89.1 Complete the sentences with a word from A opposite 89.2 A linguist may talk about a language’s vocabulary as its Old English is also known as Ancient Greek and Latin are referred to as languages A loanword can also be termed a Where something originates from can be called its A word for something that happens as a result of something else is A synonym for effect or influence is The opposite of impoverish or make poorer is Which of the words in B opposite these pictures illustrate? 89.3 Fill the gaps with one of the words from B We’re having a evening at school tonight – it should be great fun Most babies these days have an injection to protect them from getting I have some lovely earrings They match my orange scarf perfectly Have a refreshing drink of lemon and honey every morning – it’ll be just the need to make you feel better again Who’s on the for the cleaning this week? The clowns went out into the street as a to advertise their circus 89.4 89.6 you Think of words that have come from your own language into English Try to find words from these topic areas, which are particularly rich in loanwords in English • food and drink • animals, flowers and landscape features • industrial products and inventions 89.5 • clothing and the home • politics and society • the arts, sports and leisure activities Make a list of false friends for English and your own first language Here is a list begun by a Spanish speaker English word similar word in my language + meaning meaning in English complexion complexión = person’s physical build appearance of skin on a person’s face (a clear complexion) destitute destituido = removed from job without money, food, home or possessions These words are said to have moved from English into a number of other languages Which of them exist in your language? thematic fields English source words food and drink beefsteak, jam, pudding, sandwich animals bulldog, dog, skunk clothing blazer, cardigan, pullover, sweater political and social life parliament, Tory, boycott, budget, inflation, strike industry and inventions car ferry, container, freight, computer chip, cable TV arts, sports and leisure ace [1 in playing cards], boxer, football, break-dance English Vocabulary in Use Advanced 185 90 Easily confused words A Words similar in form and close in meaning The United Nations should intervene to stop the civil war [step in; neutral in meaning] She shouldn’t interfere in things that don’t concern her [involve herself; negative and critical] The phone’s been ringing continually It’s driving me crazy [very frequently; often negative] Stir the mixture continuously until it boils [without stopping; from a recipe] There’s a new series on TV about space exploration [set of related programmes] I don’t want to miss this week’s episode of Oliver Twist It’s a serial – if I miss one, I’ll lose track of the story [set of programmes where the story continues over different episodes] We sat in the shade of a big oak tree [out of the sun; pleasant connotation] The evening sun cast long shadows [dark areas or shapes] They lived in the shadow of a chemical factory [in a place dominated by; negative connotation] She complimented me on my performance at the concert [praised, expressed admiration for] I took a course in programming to complement my other IT skills [make them seem better, more complete or more attractive in combination] B Words of different form but from the same area of meaning The cake mixture should be moist but not sticky [slightly wet; from a recipe] The climate in the north is damp and rather cold [slightly wet in an unpleasant way] The theme of the festival was ‘1,000 years of culture’ [the main idea that everything followed] The topic of conversation soon changed to the news [what the people talked about] The security officer noticed a broken window [concerned with protection of property, etc.] The safety officer told him that he must wear a helmet [concerned with prevention of accidents, etc.] We took a smaller road in order to avoid the roadworks on the motorway [stay away from] The escaped prisoner evaded capture for three months [escaped from; more formal] C Phrasal combinations Phrasal verbs may have noun forms with different meanings verb noun Six men broke out of the prison There was a breakout at the prison The disease has broken out in several villages in the north of the country There has been an outbreak of the disease in several villages in the north of the country Economists are looking out for signs of an end to the recession The outlook is not good The economy seems to be stagnant He stood at the corner, looking out for police cars He was the lookout while the others robbed the bank The Swimming Club decided to set up a committee to look into the club rules The company setup is quite complex, with branches in 30 different countries In some cases, two verb forms have the same words in a different order and different meanings verb 1: particle first verb 2: particle second upend [move into a vertical position] end up [finish] uphold [confirm, support] hold up [delay] outdo [do better than] out [decorate] outrun [run faster than] run out [use something so there is none left] upset [make someone worried, unhappy or angry] set up [organise or arrange something] Language help Common prepositions often occur as prefixes, e.g up and out in the table above Other examples include over (overcook, overcome), in (input, income) Make a note of new examples as you meet them See also Unit 86 186 English Vocabulary in Use Advanced Exercises 90.1 Choose the correct word in these sentences I have always tried not to intervene / interfere in things that are not my business Security / Safety at the factory is not good There have been several accidents involving machinery recently There are some themes / topics I don’t like to talk about with my friends, such as politics and religion He was dozing happily in the shade / shadows of an old beech tree The theme / topic of her latest novel is growing up as an only child in the 1970s The teacher intervened / interfered to stop the argument between the two students The receptionist called the safety / security officer once it became clear that there had been a burglary He was continually / continuously complaining about something or other The moon sometimes casts wonderful shadows / shade on the sea 10 You have to press the button continually / continuously until the green light comes on Don’t take your finger off it, or it won’t work 90.2 Decide whether the particle should go before or after the verb in these sentences The cheetah is so fast it can run a fast-moving vehicle (out) The police held the traffic while the President’s car passed (up) Sean made an insensitive comment and didn’t realise how much he’d set Wendy (up) The committee held her complaint, and she was awarded compensation (up) We decided to the living room and went online to choose paint colours (out) We ended eating in a dingy café on the edge of town (up) The radio’s not working The batteries have run (out) We ended the sofa and used it to block the doorway (up) 90.3 Choose a noun from the box that can be associated with the following sentences lookout outbreak breakout upset outlook setup There has been violence in the capital city My stomach was bad so I couldn’t go to work The prospects for the economy are good over the coming years I wanted to learn more about how the business was organised She made sure nobody was looking, and her husband did the shoplifting Four prisoners have escaped from a maximum security prison English Vocabulary in Use Advanced 187 91 One word, many meanings A Polysemy A great many words in English have more than one meaning Linguists call this aspect of vocabulary polysemy Look at these sentences and think about how you would translate the words in italics into your own language fair It’s only fair that we should share the housework The Frankfurt Book Fair is a very important event for most publishers The forecast is for the weather to stay fair for the next week I’ve got fair skin and burn easily in the sun His marks in his final exams ranged from excellent to fair flat The firefighters managed to save the children from the burning third-floor flat The countryside round here is terribly flat and boring To join the Fitness Club, you pay a flat fee of £500 The sonata is in B flat minor She finished the exercise in five minutes flat capital Fill in the form in capital letters Wellington is the capital of New Zealand You need plenty of capital to open a restaurant Capital punishment has been abolished in many countries mean What does ‘coagulate’ mean? I didn’t mean to hurt you He’s far too mean to buy her flowers The mean temperature for July is 25oC You shouldn’t be so mean to your little sister You probably need a different word to translate fair, flat, capital and mean in each sentence Sometimes the meanings are clearly related – flat as in countryside has a connection with flat as in apartment in that they both include an idea of being on one level Sometimes, however, there is no connection at all For example, the meaning of fair as in Book Fair has no obvious connection with any of the other meanings of fair Words like this can be called homographs (words with the same spellings but different meanings) B Being aware of polysemy It is useful to be aware of polysemy in English for several reasons • You need to remember that the meaning you first learnt for a word may not be the one that it has in a new context • You need to be aware that in English, words can sometimes be used as different parts of speech Flat with its apartment meaning, for instance, can become an adjective, e.g a set of flat keys • Learning about the range of meanings that a word can have can help you to learn several meanings for the price of one • It will also help you to understand jokes in English, as these are often based on polysemous words Language help The context of a word with multiple meanings will usually make it absolutely clear which of the word’s possible meanings is intended So you can understand what, for example, the noun drill probably means in (a) a dental context, (b) an army context, (c) a road-building context, or (d) a languagelearning context 188 English Vocabulary in Use Advanced Exercises 91.1 Find the example sentence in A opposite in which fair, flat, capital or mean has the following meaning intend unkind exactly fixed proper, just neither very good nor very bad city with the seat of government money light in colour 10 unwilling to spend money 91.2 What part of speech is the italicised word in each of the example sentences in A? Write a synonym or explanation for each of the examples not used in 91.1 91.3 Here are some more examples of polysemous words in English Which word can fill all the gaps in each group of sentences? He struck a and we slowly began to look around the dark cave The teenage cooks in the competition were a for any of the adults Their marriage has been called a made in heaven That bird has an unusually long Don’t forget to keep the receipt when you pay your hotel Parliament is currently discussing a proposing changes to copyright legislation Hannah gave us a lovely of glasses as a wedding present Let’s now try and a date for our meeting next week My father has very opinions about how people should behave I’ve applied for a in our company’s Paris office The end of the race is indicated by a with a flag on it Why not your query on an online forum? You’re bound to get a quick response I didn’t get my assignment back because the teacher hadn’t had time to it Sales have already passed the million You’ve got a red on your cheek It looks like lipstick You need to be a special kind of person to a successful business Do you fancy going for a this evening? Thanks to the hot weather, our shop has had a on ice cream 91.4 Look at the Language help box What does drill mean in each of the four contexts suggested? 91.5 What would the given word be most likely to mean in each of the contexts suggested? Use a dictionary if necessary 91.6 register: interest: dice: service: case: cue: a a a a a a a primary school people planning a festival a kitchen people playing tennis in a lawyer’s office people playing snooker b b b b b b a post office a bank people playing a board game in a restaurant at an airport in the theatre Explain these one-line jokes They are all based on polysemy I wondered why the tennis ball was getting bigger Then it hit me! Smaller babies may be delivered by a stork but the heavier ones need a crane Time flies like an arrow Fruit flies like a banana You know prices are rising when you buy a winter jacket and even down is up English Vocabulary in Use Advanced 189