97 Register: degrees of formality A Formal and informal words Some words are formal or informal, and others are quite neutral Is your partner (neutral) / other half (informal) not with you today? [husband/wife] Rick’s a really nice bloke/guy [man; informal] She is able to converse with everyone, which is a great gift [have a conversation; formal] Sometimes it is possible to arrange words into sets of neutral, formal and informal words neutral formal informal the box / (the) telly TV/television glasses spectacles specs clothes clothing/garments gear use employ/utilise try endeavour/attempt have a go/stab/bash/crack/shot at Language help Register is concerned with the overall tone of a text or conversation, and the relationship that is built between the speaker and listener, or reader and writer It is important to speak and write in the appropriate register for the situation B Speech and writing Some words are more associated with either spoken or written language It is worth noting if a word has a particularly strong association with speech (S) or writing (W) C word/phrase S/W comment and example subsequently W Linking adverb: (in speech, more likely to be ‘later’ or ‘afterwards’) e.g The police found some important clues Subsequently, three people were arrested in sum W Linking expression: means ‘to sum up’, e.g In sum, we may say that most, but not all, English adverbs end in -ly whatsisname/whatsername S vague word: used when we cannot remember the name of a person, e.g I met whatsername at the party, you know, the woman who works at the university thingy S vague word: used as a noun, of people and things whose name one cannot remember, e.g Give me that thingy there, yes, that bottle opener mind you S discourse marker: used to bring attention to an important point, e.g He’s a good actor Mind you, he should be – he went to the best drama college now then S discourse marker: used to get people’s attention when you want to ask or tell them something, e.g Now then, is everybody’s luggage here? Outdated words Some words and expressions may be correct, but may sound archaic (outdated) or old-fashioned, e.g asylum [hospital for the mentally ill], frock [dress], wireless [radio], consumption [tuberculosis/TB], eyeglasses [glasses] 200 English Vocabulary in Use Advanced Exercises 97.1 Make the underlined words in these sentences formal or informal, as instructed 97.2 She works in a shop that sells women’s clothes (formal) I’ve got some new spectacles Do you like them? (informal) Did you see that documentary about Wales on TV last night? (informal) Gerry’s a decent man I wouldn’t want to upset him (informal) I spent the morning talking with the Director (formal) Molly was there with her other half He’s a nice guy (neutral; neutral) Complete the table using the words from the box Do not fill the shaded boxes shades kids endeavour neutral cop really useful ensure formal umbrella employ children informal offspring sunglasses policeman/woman police officer brolly invaluable make sure try use 97.3 Decide whether these words are more likely to be associated with everyday spoken or everyday written English Write S or W next to the word frequently 97.4 begin maybe moreover What you think are the present-day equivalents of these now-outdated English words? Use a dictionary if necessary apothecary 97.5 start damsel poesy whither Look at these text extracts and decide which register types you would classify them in Underline key words which help you decide the register For example, if you think the text is ‘written, formal, poetic and archaic’, which word(s) make you think that? Some register types: literary / poetic / non-literary academic / non-academic archaic / modern technical / non-technical spoken / written formal / informal When you have created a file that is to be stored in a shared folder, or one that is located on a server, you can use the tools in the client software to restrict access to the file Sweetest love, I not go, For weariness of thee, Nor in hope the world can show A fitter love for me; But since that I Must die at last, ’tis best, To use myself in jest Thus by feigned deaths to die Views are certainly divided on the answers to the questions listed above; even whether it matters that pluralism and different paradigms reign in SLA is a matter of heated debate And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can for you – ask what you can for your country My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will for you, but what together we can for the freedom of man Mind you there was a lot of rain in Germany over Christmas wasn’t there, cos I saw the river in Bonn on the news on telly, the Rhine Yeah, the river in Bonn English Vocabulary in Use Advanced 201 98 Divided by a common language Very few words and expressions are used exclusively in either British or American English, and you are likely to hear and read words from both varieties A Streets and roads Street has a wider range of meaning in American English American speaker: Let’s cross the street here; there’s more traffic further down However, a British speaker would normally say cross the road, especially in a busy city Here are some more examples of American English words and expressions not used in British English The British English expressions are given in square brackets Go two blocks down and the car rental office is kitty-corner to the gas station [diagonally opposite; informal] [petrol station] You should always use the crosswalk to cross the street [pedestrian crossing / zebra crossing] There’s a trail that leads down to the creek [path] [stream, small river] Take a left here and you’ll come to the Interstate after about three miles [turn left] [major motorway in the US connecting different states] Language help After the intersection, look for a sign saying ‘International Airport’ [junction] I hit a shopping cart in the parking lot when I was backing up [trolley] [car park] [reversing] Look for the overpass and then take the next exit for downtown Chicago [flyover, i.e bridge In British English road numbers use the; in American English no article is used British English: Take the M4 as far as Newbury, then turn off on to the A34 for Oxford American English: Take I-45 north for about 20 miles, then take 25 west that carries one road over another] B C Educational terminology American British My older brother never went to college My older brother never went to university (college in Britain usually means a place for specialised education for people over 16) What courses are you taking next semester? What modules are you taking next semester/term? Are you a freshman? No, I’m a sophomore Are you a fresher / first year (student)? No, I’m (a) second year Most of my friends are juniors Most of my friends are third years / third year students She’s majoring in French She’s doing honours in French / She’s doing a French honours degree My professors are all very friendly (used as a general term for university teachers) My lecturers are all very friendly (used as a general term for university teachers – a professor is a person with the highest academic rank) I want to be an elementary school teacher I want to be a primary school teacher My years in high school were not very happy My years in secondary school were not very happy Around the home This cable is the ground (US) / earth (UK) [cable that takes electricity safely into the ground] We need a dumpster (US) / skip (UK) to put all this old stuff in [large metal container for rubbish] The faucet (US) / tap (UK) in the kitchen never stops dripping! I have to cook for five people, so we need a big stove (US) / cooker (UK) [piece of kitchen equipment to cook food] I fried the fish in a skillet (US) / frying pan (UK) 202 English Vocabulary in Use Advanced Exercises 98.1 Who you think is most likely to be speaking, an American or a British person? What would someone who speaks the other variety probably have said instead? 98.2 98.3 I lost my way at the big intersection just south of the city Why are there always so many shopping trolleys left in the car park? Cross the road at the pedestrian crossing, then turn left You can’t drive any further; you’ll have to back up, the street is very narrow You’ll see the petrol station just after the flyover on the A34 Once you get on to the Interstate, it will only take you two hours to get there The office is kitty-corner to the Chinese restaurant There’s a creek at the end of the trail It’s about three miles from here Match the words on the left with their equivalent on the right, and write US for American English and UK for British English in the boxes dumpster a skillet ground b tap frying pan c stove cooker d earth faucet e skip Answer the questions Who you think is more likely to get homesick, a fresher or a junior? Does a primary school teacher teach at more or less the same level as an elementary school teacher or at a different level? How might calling someone ‘Professor’ in the US mean something different from calling someone ‘Professor’ in Britain? Where are you more likely to register for a module, the US or Britain? What year of study are you in if you are a sophomore? If someone says they are majoring in psychology, what they mean? If an American says they’re going to college next year, does that necessarily mean the same as if a British person said it? If someone says they’re a secondary school teacher, are they more likely to be British or American? English Vocabulary in Use Advanced 203 99 Language and gender A Gender awareness and vocabulary In professional contexts and elsewhere, we often take care to use gender-neutral language in English David Crystal, in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, writes: Attention has been focused on the replacement of ‘male’ words with a generic meaning by neutral items – chairman, for example, becoming chair or chairperson (though not without controversy) or salesman becoming sales assistant In certain cases, such as job descriptions, the use of sexually neutral language has become a legal requirement There is continuing debate between extremists and moderates as to how far such revisions should go – whether they should affect traditional idioms such as man in the street1 and Neanderthal Man2, or apply to parts of words where the male meaning of man is no longer dominant, such as manhandle3 and woman The vocabulary of marital status has also been affected, notably in the introduction of Ms as a neutral alternative to Miss or Mrs a typical person (could be replaced by person in the street) present-day humans handle roughly, using force a now-extinct species that were the ancestors of Here are some examples of gender-neutral variations of vocabulary B 204 older usage current usage spokesman spokesperson fireman, policeman firefighter, police officer air hostess flight attendant cleaning lady cleaner foreman supervisor man-made artificial mankind the human race / human beings to man (a machine or place of work) to staff Words referring to men and women words meaning/comment example male, female used for gender classification in biology male and female bees masculine, feminine having qualities traditionally felt to be typically male or female masculine pride, feminine charm guy, bloke informal words for a man Jack’s a really nice guy guys an informal word for men and women, especially in the phrase you guys, as a way of addressing people directly Do any of you guys fancy going out for a pizza tonight? girlfriend used by women to refer to a female friend I’m meeting up with a few girlfriends this evening girlie/girly used to describe things that girls and young women often enjoy without men, especially involving clothes, make-up, etc They’re having a girlie evening at home lad informal word for a boy or young man He’s having a night out with some of the lads tonight laddish used to describe unpleasant behaviour thought to be typical of young men in a group, especially drinking alcohol I can’t stand that kind of laddish behaviour! macho used to describe a man who likes to appear strong and doesn’t show his feelings He refuses to cry – it would spoil his macho image! English Vocabulary in Use Advanced Exercises 99.1 Answer these questions about the text opposite Why you think there have been attempts to introduce gender-neutral language of the kind described by David Crystal? How would you explain this expression: ‘male’ words with a generic meaning? Why you think there might have been controversy about attempts to change the word chairman? What more extreme advocates of making English gender-neutral want to that is unacceptable to the moderates? Why was Ms introduced and why is it useful? 99.2 Change these sentences so they reflect modern usage 10 99.3 Choose the correct word to complete each sentence 99.4 Three firemen helped put out a fire at a disused warehouse last night A spokesman for the Department of Education provided us with a statement Cleaning lady wanted for house in Priory Street The helpline is continuously manned even during holiday periods All our air hostesses are fluent in at least three languages The fibres in this garment are man-made Policemen today spend more time in cars than on the beat This was a great step for mankind The man in the street has little time for such issues Salesmen are often well trained and can be very persuasive She always dresses in a very feminine / female way The masculine / male cat is less aggressive than his sister Do you girlfriends / guys fancy meeting up later? The bar was full of loud, lad / laddish young men Ross likes to see himself as a tough male / macho man! Anna’s going away for the weekend with a few girlfriends / females Answer these questions Do you think that using gender-specific language affects people’s attitudes to men and women’s roles in society? Does your language ever use male words generically? If so, give examples of words you use to avoid gender stereotyping How you feel about imposing language changes of the different kinds that David Crystal describes? Do terms of address (i.e Mr, Mrs, etc.) in your language indicate whether people are married? Do you think it is better if terms of address indicate marital status or not? Why? A grammatical problem in this area is the use of he/his to refer to a person of either gender In the sentence ‘A government minister may have to neglect his family’, the minister could be a man or a woman However, the use of ‘his’ assumes, perhaps wrongly, that it is a man How could you rewrite this sentence to avoid this problem? English Vocabulary in Use Advanced 205 100 In the headlines A Features of headline language If a story hits the headlines it suddenly receives a lot of attention in the news Here are two typical examples of headlines from tabloid newspapers with comments on their use of language [popular papers with small pages and short simple reports] EXPERT REVEALS NEW CLOUD DANGERS • Articles, prepositions and auxiliary verbs are often omitted from headlines • This use of the present simple instead of the past tense makes the story sound more immediate • The use of language is often ambiguous It is not entirely clear, for example, what cloud refers to here It is actually about the dangers of storing electronic information on a ‘cloud’ [hosted services on the internet for storing personal data], but it could have referred to dangers relating to the weather Readers have to look at the story in order to find out • Words with dramatic associations such as danger are often used TV STAR TRAGIC TARGET FOR CRAZED GUNMAN This story is about how a well-known television actor was shot by a mentally unstable killer • In order to attract readers’ attention, tabloid newspapers often feature celebrities, e.g film/pop stars and sports personalities • Alliteration such as TV Star Tragic Target is often used to attract the eye in headlines and to make them sound more memorable • Newspapers tend to use strong, simple words such as ‘gunman’ in order to express an idea or image as briefly and as vividly as possible • Strongly emotional words like crazed are often used to attract attention [behaving in a wild or strange way, especially because of strong emotion] B Violent words Violent and militaristic words are often used in headlines, especially in tabloid newspapers, in order to make stories seem more dramatic For example, people who cause trouble may be referred to as thugs, yobs or louts EU acts to crush1 terror of thugs Crackdown2 on soccer louts Palace besieged3 by journalists Typhoon rips through town destroy taking serious measures to deal with a problem surrounded, as if by army moves in a destructive way C Playing with words Language help The kind of language that is common in headlines may sound strange in other contexts So the vocabulary in this unit is more likely to be useful to you when you are reading rather than when you are speaking or writing Many newspaper headlines attract readers’ attention by playing on words in an entertaining way For example, a story about a very heavy rainstorm which caused a landslide on a narrow mountain road was headlined Rain of terror This headline was a play on words based on the expression reign of terror, an expression used about a period in which a country’s ruler controls people in a particularly cruel way Another example is the use of the headline Moon becomes shooting star to describe a football match where a player called John Moon shot [scored] the winning goal Shooting star is an informal expression for a meteor Here it is used to play on the expression shoot a goal, and also to link to the player’s name, Moon (another astronomical body) The headline is particularly effective because of the association between star and moon in the sky 206 English Vocabulary in Use Advanced Exercises 100.1 Read these headlines What you think the stories might be about? 100.2 CRACKDOWN ON DISSENT THUGS BESIEGE TEEN STAR COPS TARGET YOBS Look at these headlines from a fictitious tabloid newspaper about Ancient Greece Match them with the subjects of their stories and comment on the features of headline language they contain NUDE SCIENTIST IN BATHTUB SCANDAL KING PHIL’S MACEDONIAN MASSACRE MARATHON MAN IN DROP-DEAD DASH a b c d e 100.3 BLAST TERROR IN CAPITAL PM TO REVEAL SOCCER LOUT PLANS TOP PLAYERS DEFEND COACH QUADRUPLE ROYAL MURDER SENSATION IT’S CURTAINS FOR CORINTH Four members of the royal family die in mysterious circumstances Philip of Macedonia wins a battle against the city states of Athens and Thebes Archimedes discovers the law governing the displacement of water The city of Corinth is burnt to the ground by the Romans A long-distance runner brings news of a battle victory to Athens and then dies Match the headline to its story and explain the play on words in each case Bad blood Hopping mad Happy days? Flushed with success Shell-shocked False impressions Highly embarrassed Round-up Happy haunting a A grandfather’s breathing problems were solved when doctors found four false teeth at the entrance to his lungs They had been forced down his windpipe in a car crash eight years before b A 25-year-old terrapin is being treated for a fractured shell after surviving a 200-foot drop c A Shetland teacher has suggested sheepdogs could be used to control pupils in playgrounds d A ghost society has been told not to scare off a friendly female apparition at a hotel e An unusual travel company is offering adults the chance to experience going back to school again – they will spend a week wearing school uniform, sitting through lessons and eating school dinners f An ex-public loo in Hackney, East London, is to be sold for £276,000 g A Whitby vicar has attacked the resort’s attempts to profit on its connections with Dracula: ‘a palefaced man with a bad sense of fashion, severe dental problems and an eating disorder’ h A toad triggered a police alert when it set off a new hi-tech alarm system i Firefighters had to scale a 30-foot tree to rescue a man who was trying to capture his pet iguana English Vocabulary in Use Advanced 207 101 Red tape A Characteristics of bureaucratic language A STUDENT SHALL NOT BE ELIGIBLE FOR A LOAN IN RELATION TO AN ACADEMIC YEAR IF HE/SHE: (a) has attained1 the age of 50 years before the first day of the course; (b) has received another loan in relation to the same academic year; (c) has received another loan in relation to another academic year which began during the same period 1st August to the following 31st July during which the academic year began; (d) is eligible in respect of that year to receive: (i) any payment under a bursary or award of similar description bestowed on2 him/her under section 63 of the Health Services and Public Health Act 1968(2) the amount of which is not calculated by reference to his/her income reached given to Reply Forward Your request to demolish1 the garage adjoining2 your property is hereby rejected Any and all appeals regarding this decision must be submitted to the undersigned3 by Jan 31 2018 No exceptions to the aforementioned4 procedure will be considered knock down next to the person who wrote this letter mentioned earlier Some publications produced by companies or government departments are difficult to understand because they use language that is very different from everyday English • They frequently use words that are longer and ‘grander’ than their ordinary equivalents • They often use a passive form instead of an active one, e.g ‘Normal service will be resumed as soon as possible’ instead of ‘We will resume normal service as soon as possible.’ • They use nouns as the subject of the sentence when they are not necessary, e.g ‘Achievement of this module is dependent upon candidates meeting the assessment outcomes’ instead of ‘To achieve this module, candidates must meet the assessment outcomes.’ • They use a noun instead of You, e.g Customers will be informed of …’ instead of ‘You will be informed of …’ or even ‘We will tell you about …’ These words are more frequent in a bureaucratic context: Work will commence in May [start] (noun = commencement) The company ceased operations last year [stopped functioning] (noun = cessation) Property belonging to the deceased will be returned to the next of kin [dead person] [closest relative] In the event of an emergency, call 121 [if there is] In the event of fire, the building must be evacuated immediately [people must leave] Tenants must endeavour to keep communal areas tidy at all times [try] The developments will facilitate movement of traffic in the area [make possible, easier] Residents will be instructed what to in the event of an emergency [will be told] The project will proceed to the next phase in June [move] We are currently attempting to rectify the situation [put right] Normal service will be resumed as soon as possible [start again] B Bureaucratic correspondence There is some specific vocabulary that characterises bureaucratic letters: Please acknowledge receipt of payment [inform us that you have received] With the compliments of Smith and Co [written on a slip of paper sent with an item from a company] Please notify us immediately of any change of address [inform] I would be grateful for a reply at your earliest convenience [as soon as possible] Contact us if further clarification is required [you need more of an explanation] I enclose payment in respect of your invoice [relating to, for] I am writing with regard to your advertisement [about] 208 English Vocabulary in Use Advanced Exercises 101.1 Look at the two texts in A opposite Find an example in the texts of each of the four characteristics of bureaucratic language listed in the bullets in A 101.2 Read each sentence Choose the word in the second sentence which gives the same meaning in simpler language Roadworks will commence on June Roadworks will begin / end on June (on a form) Contact details for next of kin Write the name and address of your neighbour / nearest relative With the compliments of Jane Bramwell With best wishes / love from Jane Bramwell Call me at your earliest convenience Call me early in the morning / as soon as you can In the event of fire, lifts should not be used If there is a fire / At the start of a fire, don’t use the lifts Passengers should await instruction from the captain before proceeding to the car deck Passengers should not go to / leave the car deck until the captain tells them to I am writing with regard to the editorial in today’s paper I am writing for / about the editorial in today’s paper I am writing in respect of your letter of 6th June I am writing in connection with / in favour of your letter of 6th June 101.3 Match the words with their synonyms Which word or phrase in each pair exemplifies bureaucratic language? deceased acknowledge end make easier rectify let us know start clarification put right start again commencement dead endeavour try facilitate cessation explanation resume 101.4 Complete the word formation table below Note that not all the words are on the opposite page Use a dictionary if necessary verb noun adjective clarification facilitate instruct notifiable rectify 101.5 Rewrite the sentences using everyday, non-bureaucratic English to replace the underlined words and phrases Use a dictionary if necessary Clients must comply with the following regulations Insert coins into the slot below Your complaints have been investigated and are considered to be without foundation Passengers are requested to refrain from smoking Tick your country of residence English Vocabulary in Use Advanced 209 ... Vocabulary in Use Advanced 203 99 Language and gender A Gender awareness and vocabulary In professional contexts and elsewhere, we often take care to use gender-neutral language in English David Crystal,... these questions Do you think that using gender-specific language affects people’s attitudes to men and women’s roles in society? Does your language ever use male words generically? If so, give... stereotyping How you feel about imposing language changes of the different kinds that David Crystal describes? Do terms of address (i.e Mr, Mrs, etc.) in your language indicate whether people are