military: Europe 697 weapons, such as discuses, bows, javelins, and slings Fortifications were relatively similar to earlier times, although there was an increased use of hilltop fortifications Defensive works usually incorporated walls, defended gates, bastions, and moats Many cities were fortified, and siege warfare consisted of blockades and direct assaults The Three Kingdoms Period (300–668) of the Korean peninsula featured the rival polities of Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla Historical and archaeological evidence indicates warfare between the three kingdoms and with outside powers in China and Japan Given the peninsula’s geographic proximity to China, much of the available military technologies on the peninsula were relatively similar For example, the Koguryo military featured use of cavalry mixed with infantry Infantry soldiers wore padded armor and helmets, while higher-ranking officers were equipped with armor of lamellar iron Shock weapons included bronze and iron swords, spearheads, and axes, while longer-range weapons included bows with metallic points Human colonization of many of the South Pacific islands commenced during the first millennium b.c.e and continued during the first millennium and early second millennium c.e According to oral histories, warfare was widespread within these Oceanic and Polynesian societies prior to 18thcentury European contact, especially as populations grew In general, warfare was a means to consolidate resources, people, agriculturally productive territory, and political power Native histories describe battles waged by ruling classes of chiefly leaders who fought wars of conquest and succession Complementing the historical record, warfare is indicated by archaeological evidence, which includes fortifications, weaponry, war temples, and refuges For example, the Maori of New Zealand first settled the island during the 11th century, and their communities eventually developed into large, hierarchical villages Maori societies constructed heavily fortified settlements known as pa, typically consisting of a hilltop fortress marked by palisades, ditches, and embankments Over 4,000 such forts have been found Hawaiian societies did not construct fortifications, although there is evidence for the use of refuges, such as walledup lava tubes For Marquesan societies, warfare ranged from simple raiding to conquest of land Some Marquesan settlements were also marked by defensibility, with ditched fortifications and strongholds Very broadly speaking, Polynesian warfare included both long-distance weapons, such as slings and spears, as well as shock weapons, such as lances, wooden daggers, and clubs Maori warriors, known as toa, used spears and clubs with embedded shell, bone, or stone for lethal edges These societies also used war canoe fleets, propelled by sails or paddles, for transporting troops over longer distances For instance, the Tongans used war canoes to invade and conquer Samoa Europe by Bradley A Skeen The art of war, the understanding and application of strategy, was largely static during the Middle Ages, although there were incremental changes in some areas, such as the design of armor and the naval architecture of warships Western European armies of knights evolved from the war bands of the ancient Germanic kings The Byzantine Empire maintained a professional army that was based on that of the older Roman Empire Warfare changed dramatically, however, in the 15th century as new technology such as gunpowder became prominent and popular armies began to emerge The Byzantine army was reformed by the emperor Maurice (r 582–602), who transformed the Roman army of late antiquity into its medieval form All officers were directly appointed and could be removed at will by the emperor The army was distributed throughout the empire Each theme (a Byzantine government administrative unit) had its own force of as many as 10,000 men If this force was unable to deal with an invasion, forces from neighboring themes would come to its aid This deployment dedicated the Byzantine state to a defensive posture Beset on all sides by enemies who vastly outnumbered them, the Byzantines did not think in terms of grand offensives that would solve their military problems once and for all Byzantine soldiers were long-service professional volunteers They were highly disciplined and trained; thus, they were far more effective than any other soldiers in the Middle Ages Soldiers came especially from the mountainous regions of central Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) Such recruits had the natural advantages of highland soldiers Because their family farms were principally concerned with raising cattle, sheep or goats in mountain pastures rather than only the cereal crops that dominated agriculture in most areas, they were taller and more physically capable, owing to a diet more heavily based on meat and milk products rather than the wheat gruel that was the staple of most peasants Also because of diet, the infant mortality rate was low; thus, mountain farmers tended to have more children than their land could support, creating a steady supply of young recruits They were experienced in riding and hunting even before entering the army These same features would characterize other outstanding groups of soldiers throughout the Middle Ages, such as the Welsh and Swiss The tactical model of the Byzantine army was descended from the warriors of the Germanic tribes that had made up