446 food and diet: Asia and the Pacific Rice was the staple starch in medieval India, although people also ate millet, barley, and wheat Each of the several different varieties of rice was prepared in a slightly different way Many people strained the water from rice after it was boiled and then made the rice water into a sauce by adding ground spices to it Sometimes cooks added spices to the water they used to wash rice before boiling it Typical spices included cardamom, cumin, cloves, coriander, and pepper Many Indians were vegetarian by religion; high-caste Hindus and Jains never ate meat Others were vegetarian by necessity, because they could not afford to buy meat Vegetarianism was by no means universal, however Nobles and members of the royalty were not vegetarian There are reports that nobles ate meats roasted on spits and baked fish, which was considered very good for people suffering from illness Depending on the region, people were forbidden to eat certain animals The meat of cows was often avoided in Hindu regions, and Muslims refused to eat pork A typical Indian meal included rice, a soup, and raw and cooked fruits and vegetables Legumes such as lentils, mung beans, peas, and other pulses were common ingredients in soup When eaten with rice, they furnished complete protein to the vegetarian Indian diet People ate many vegetables, including various types of greens, tubers, and radishes Cooks combined these ingredients in various ways and added spices to enliven them Indian people also ate a great deal of fresh fruit, including lemons, grapes, pomegranates, jackfruit, plantain, and mangoes, which were considered the king of fruits Desserts were very popular Favorite sweets included puddings of buffalo milk mixed with sugar and spices, a rice pudding called payasam, and sweet noodles People often brought payasam to temples as an offering to deities The staple food in Japan was rice Many people ate rice at every meal, and for some people rice constituted the entire meal The word for “meal” in Japanese, gohan, means “rice.” Cooks supplemented their rice with vegetables, fish, and a few simple sauces Seafood was an essential source of protein for many Japanese people Japan has a very long coastline, so many Japanese people went fishing or gathered shellfish every day Raw fish was considered the most delicious and healthful Japanese cooks sliced their fresh fish thin and served it with bowls of rice They also cooked seafood over fires, put it in soup, or dried it in the sun Dried fish provided protein when fresh fish was unavailable The Japanese dried fish in a variety of shapes, slicing fillets from large fish and drying tiny fish intact; the bones of these small fish were considered good for the health Meat from mammals and poultry was much less common than fish on Japanese tables Some farmers raised chickens and other fowl, and people ate eggs in addition to meat It was impractical to raise large animals such as cows in Japan’s environment, so beef and dairy products were virtually unknown Zen Buddhist philosophy taught that it was wrong to kill any creature, and for this reason many Japanese people were vegetarian Tofu first appeared in Japan in the late eighth century, around the time Zen Buddhism took root in the area Japanese Buddhists obtained most of their protein from soybeans and soy products, such as tofu, miso (fermented soybean paste), and natto (fermented, steamed soybeans) Soy sauce was the main salty seasoning, and soy products were popular even among people who did eat meat Most meals included a bowl of miso soup that was served as a drink to wash down solid food All Japanese people ate many vegetables Even the simplest meal of rice would usually include pickles made from daikon radishes, cucumbers, or other vegetables Other common vegetables included cucumbers, eggplants, bok choy (a leafy vegetable), burdock root, lotus root, and various kinds of cabbage Tiny pickled plums were a common salty addition to rice People ate many different types of seaweed, either dried or reconstituted in soup Zen Buddhism taught that people should find pleasure and spiritual satisfaction through everyday activities, such as farming and the preparation of food This led Japanese people to elevate the preparation of simple meals into an art form, with the presentation of dishes in attractive bowls an essential part of the meal Pacific islanders were somewhat limited in their available foodstuffs Those who lived on larger islands in tropical climates could grow or gather a wider variety of plant foods than those in colder climates or more remote regions Common fruits and nuts included coconut, breadfruit, macadamia nuts, bananas, and pineapple The staple starches were sweet potato, taro, and cassava Some islanders raised chickens and pigs for meat and eggs Fish and shellfish were the primary source of protein for many islanders, though they also hunted wild birds The aboriginal people of Australia were very good at finding food in their harsh environment They ate grubs, moths, honeypot ants, honeybag bees, and other insects, and they gathered eggs from birds’ nests Men hunted kangaroo, wallaby, echidna, opossum, koala, and any other animal they could catch Women gathered a variety of plant foods, including yams, fern roots, palm hearts, nuts, seeds, leaves, figs, and berries and other fruits In coastal areas the people gathered shellfish from the shallows The nuts of bunya pines were a popular food Wild honey was their main sweetener Australians cooked meat over fires, sometimes wrapping it first in leaves Preparing plant foods was very time-con-