438 festivals: The Islamic World Later in the medieval period people began to imitate the angels, wandering from house to house demanding treats and performing practical jokes, or “tricks,” on anyone who refused Additionally, many of these people carried turnips carved to represent faces, the origin of the modern practice of carving Halloween pumpkins Many modern Halloween traditions came to the United States in the 19th century with Irish immigrants who preserved the traditions in their folk beliefs In addition to celebrating the major festivals, medieval Europeans held festivities throughout the year whenever they believed there was something to celebrate In February, Saint Valentine’s Day was marked by dancing, singing, and courtship rituals People in the British Isles relived the legend of Saint George and the dragon on Saint George’s Day on April 23, and Midsummer Eve was celebrated in June with bonfires Bones were burned in many of these fires, hence the word bonfire August was Lammas Day, or “loaf-mass” day, when Britons celebrated the first wheat harvest of the year by decorating their homes with garlands, holding candle-lit processions, and bobbing for apples In September, Michaelmas Day, or the Feast of Saint Michael, was celebrated with feasting; the traditional food became a chicken or goose Any of these festivals could feature mummers, tumblers, jugglers, jesters, troubadours, minstrels, acting troupes, bull or bear baiting, fairs, and other forms of entertainment The Islamic World by Babak Rahimi The emergence of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula in the early seventh century introduced a body of religious festivals along with a new Islamic calendar, which began with the year Muhammad (ca 570–632 c.e.) and his followers left the Saudi Arabian town of Mecca to form a new Muslim community in 622 The journey was called the Hegira, and the new calendar began with Year a.h (After Hegira) Most of these festivals took place to celebrate either a historical event of sacred importance or the end of a ritual performance, such as the month-long fast of Ramadan, which was divinely prescribed for the new Muslim community During the pre-Islamic era of the Arabian Peninsula religious festivals were carried out to celebrate the birth of various gods, including Allah, the ancient god of the rain and sky who represented the supreme god of pre-Islamic Arabs The rise of Islam as a new religious movement, however, brought to existence festivals that were chiefly meant to celebrate the accomplishment of pious deeds carried out by the new converts to show God their devotion and faith Since Islam recognizes correct conduct as the means to a good life in both this world and the afterlife, most Muslim festivities are performed to celebrate the accomplishment of pious actions through hardship and perseverance However, Islamic festivals have mostly gained sacred significance not by their importance according to the Koranic laws but because of their popular appeal Most of the Islamic festivities are collective events that allow the entire community, including the poor, women, and non-Muslims, to participate in the ceremonies They offer an opportunity for Muslims to spend a festive time with their family and neighbors and to foster a sense of religious identity In the medieval period Muslim communities participated in religious festivals in various parts of the Umayyad Empire (661–750) and the Abbasid Empire (749–1258), regions spanning North Africa, the Middle East, and parts of central Asia These religious festivals were organized primarily by Muslim governments to strengthen the religious identity of the Islamic empire, bringing together people of various ethnic and racial backgrounds They also became unique cultural events where Muslims of various cults and sects, especially Shiite and Sunni, competed with one another for moral prestige and religious legitimacy According to Islamic law (sharia), one of the most significant ritual obligations for Muslims is to fast during the month of Ramadan, the ninth month in the Muslim lunar calendar Excluding the young and ill and those who travel, Muslims are expected to refrain from eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse each day from sunrise to sunset Although business can be conducted in the course of the day, the community is required to follow through the pious conduct of fasting as a way to worship God while the sun is out The night, however, offers an opportunity for celebration, as those who fast the entire day are able to rejoice and feast at sunset for accomplishing a day of self-restraint through pious conduct The most important day of festivities begins at the end of Ramadan with the last sighting of the moon at the end of the month, on the first day of the month of Shawwal, marking the final day of fasting After a light meal and a morning prayer the community begins a gluttonous celebration, a holiday that lasts from morning to night On this holiday, known as the Id ul-Fitr or “festival of the breaking of the fast,” Muslims are also required to pay their annual religious alms as an expression of their piety and festive sharing that strengthens social solidarity They also wear their best clothes, visit family and neighbors, and go to cemeteries The Id ul-Fitr represented the most communal of all the Muslim ceremonies It was the most popular in medieval times because of the unique opportunity it provided for the common people, including non-Muslims, to celebrate a holi-