Encyclopedia of society and culture in the medieval world (4 volume set) ( facts on file library of world history ) ( PDFDrive ) 104

architecture: The Islamic World  77 also attempted to define spaces and change spatial qualities In addition, light was used as a metaphysical element to make buildings seem weightless and transparent East The eastern boundaries of Islamic countries include regions from Iran (Persia), central Asia, and India After the invasion of Persia by Arabs in 651, while several local governments ruled in different regions (contemporary to the Umayyads and the Abbasids), architectural developments experienced a hiatus of sorts Through cultural changes within society, royal palaces were replaced by mosques, which were more communal and democratic Stressing the inner concentration and excluding the outer world, the earliest mosques were built based on Sassanid concepts and techniques Using local materials, techniques, and styles, architects decorated secular buildings with polychromed cut-stucco and intricate motifs The first powerful dynasty in the Islamic world was the Seljuk Empire (1038–1194 in Iran and Syria and 1038–1307 in Anatolia), which spread from Syria to Transoxiana This age was the highest point of creativity in architectural concepts, forms, and techniques in Islamic Persia The most important achievement of Seljuk architecture, which was later widely used as a model, was the four-iwan plan, which originated in Parthia as a prototype in the plans of religious buildings, such as Friday mosques at Qazvin (1113–15) and Ardestan (1180) The Seljuks developed the use of stucco, tiny fragments of tile (moarragh), naked-brick architecture, polychrome, and geometrical forms in decoration Moreover, despite using heavy material like brick, Seljuk architects attempted to lighten the domical mass both physically and visually They also showed an interest in creating monumental portals (pishtaq), which were rectangular frames surrounding an arch In Seljuk architecture in Anatolia, as opposed to the brick architecture of the Iranians and the Byzantines, the walls were made of rubble or rough stone and then faced with large blocks of beautifully dressed stone Although the invasion of Iran and central Asia by Genghis Khan (ca 1162–1227) in 1218 caused serious destruction, his successors, the Ilkhanids, who were impressed by Persian civilization, were great patrons of art and architecture The Ilkhanids’ most important capital was Sultaniya (early 14th century), which was founded by Öljeitü (1280–1316) The only remaining building from this imperial city is Öljeitü’s octagonal mausoleum, with its enormous dome and majestic scale The Ilkhanids emphasized the verticality of the building by designing higher portal minarets, very tall portal arches, domes of immense size, and elongated panels, examples of which can be seen in Friday mosques in Varamin (1322) and Yazd (1442) After the Ilkhanids, Timur (1336–1405) chose Samarqand as his capital and a center for artistic invention He collected all the artisans of his empire in this city Registan, Shah-iZinda, Gur-i Amir, and Ulugh Beg complexes in Samarqand are the best examples of this glorious age Most Timurid buildings are impressive brick structures with glittering multicolored tile decorations on the exterior and inventive systems of plaster vaults of muqarnas (geometric decorations) on the interior West The Umayyads (661–750), the successors of the prophet Muhammad, established their capital in Damascus and adopted Hellenistic and Sassanid architectural elements and concepts in their buildings Umayyad mosques were square or rectangular plans that included a central courtyard and a hypostyle (with a roof resting on columns) prayer hall The Umayyads used local materials, especially ashlar stone and brick on the exterior and marble in the interior of their mosques, such as the Great Mosque of Damascus (706) and the Al-Aqsa Mosque of Jerusalem (715) Constructed with stone and brick, such Umayyad palaces as Qusayr Amra (712–715) and Qasr al-Hayr (727–729) were square in plan with a central courtyard Although the Umayyads’ rule officially ended in 750, the so-called Umayyad architecture (in Spain) after this period refers to the patronage of the dynasty founded on the Iberian Peninsula by the Umayyad prince Abd ar-Rahman I (731–788), whose most important building was the Great Mosque of Córdoba, with a hypostyle hall of spolia (reused from former buildings) columns and capitals supporting arcades of horseshoe arches Supported by Persians who were frustrated with Arab rule, the Abbasid Dynasty (749–1258) seized political leadership from the Umayyad caliphs The Abbasids, who moved the caliphal capital from Damascus to Baghdad, were highly influenced by Sassanid structures that still remained in Iraq Their new capital, Baghdad, which was founded near the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, had a round plan with governmental and religious buildings in the center Their monumental buildings were structural systems composed of massive brick piers and arches with brick and molded stucco decorations Using a hypostyle model, Abbasid mosques, such as the Great Mosque of al-Mutawakkil at Samarra and the Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo, were monumental The Abbasid palaces of Samarra (836) and Bayt al-Khalifa (836) included military quarters, extensive gardens and recreational spaces, residential courts, and richly decorated ceremonial spaces in extensive complexes along the Tigris River Contemporary to the Seljuks, the Fatimid Dynasty (909– 1171) established itself in North Africa and claimed the ca-