illumination: The Islamic World 569 ally made of linen, hemp, or cotton Of these, cotton burned the best and soon became the dominant material To use the lamp the wick was floated or secured in the oil and set alight Lighted lamps were then placed on the table in dishes or from the ceiling by chains Lamps were used everywhere in Europe during the Middle Ages However, the low melting point of candles and other tallow-coated lights meant that in the warmer areas of southern Europe lamps were the main source of lighting after the hearth fire Outdoor lighting during the period was extremely limited It was difficult to produce a light bright enough to illuminate a sizable area for any length of time Firelight provided the best source of light but lacked portability The other main types of outdoor light were torches and cressets Torches were made from bundles of dried grasses and dried sticks that were then set alight They were highly combustible and sent off dangerous sparks The extent to which they were used remains largely speculative, as they left no trace in the archaeological record Cressets were baskets made of metal or stone, which were then filled with fuel such as resinous wood or oil The baskets were mounted on poles so that they could be carried around These portable forms of light were commonly used by night watchmen on guard in villages and towns In the Middle Ages artificial light sources not only were of poor quality, they were also messy and dangerous Soot and smoke were constant pollutants, while hot oil and molten animal wax were capable of causing serious injury In addition, most domestic dwellings were made of wood This meant that there was a constant risk of local or widespread fires In order to minimize the damage to property and life from unattended flames, hearths had to be covered or extinguished at a certain hour of the evening A bell was rung to signal this hour, which was known as the curfew The name derives from the Old French covre-feu, meaning literally “cover fire.” The Islamic World by Kirk H Beetz People of the medieval Islamic world had an ambivalent relationship with sunlight On the one hand, they depended on the sun to provide light for working and reading, but for much of the Islamic world, sunlight brought with it wearisome heat and blinding glare For nomadic Muslims, these conditions meant that they spent much of their time in their pavilions, out of direct sunlight Women did much of their work within the tents, cooking and weaving Both of these activities required an ability to see small details, implying that lamplight was almost certainly used within the tents The development of Islamic architecture reflected various efforts to come to terms with sunlight Homes in the country often were walled enclosures with buildings within them The buildings, which were homes and storage houses, might have no windows at all, allowing for people to escape inside from direct sunlight, or they might have small windows that allowed enough light inside for people to avoid bumping into each other or furnishings; these windows could be covered by curtains or shutters In early Islamic cities homes usually consisted of courtyards around which the living quarters were built Most daily activity took place in the courtyard, which could be shaded on the edges by eaves or verandas In large homes of well-to-do people the courtyards were surrounded by roofed colonnades, among which people could enjoy the benefits of shade while having enough sunlight by which to work or to read Medieval Muslims valued family privacy highly, and their cities developed multistory houses, each house with only a single door facing the street or alley outside There were no windows on the outside walls; instead, windows were in the walls facing the inner courtyard Thus, lighting emphasized the importance of the family home over the outside world The relationship of sunlight to religious observances was similarly ambivalent For many builders, lighting the prayer hall was important so that people could see the direction to Mecca and see the cleric leading prayers The oldest great Islamic monument, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, had five windows for each side of its octagonal lower story, making a total of 40, and another 16 windows in the drum of the dome, allowing sunlight to bathe the designs on the walls of the interior Lamps were added for further illumination of the interior Another approach was that of the Great Mosque of Damascus (706–15) It was one of many courtyard mosques In these a courtyard surrounded by walls or colonnades served as the prayer hall Nevertheless, some designers seem to have wanted an air of mystery in their mosques The Great Mosque of Córdoba is the most famous example Its prayer hall is a forest of pillars of varying designs In sunlight from high windows these pillars cast numerous shadows, darkening the walls and producing the effect of a wall-less interior, with people inside being surrounded by infinite space The Koran asserts that “God is the Light of the heavens and the earth” and compares the light of God to a lamp encased in glass in a niche, with the glass shining like a star Thus, lamps could symbolize the light by which God attracts the spirits of people who wish to be good and moral When the Islamic world began, lamps were already the preferred form of artificial illumination in the Near East In Egypt candles made of beeswax had long been made, but under the Byzantine Empire oil lamps predominated in homes and public places At first Muslims used the sort of lamps that were already being made, mostly those of the Samaritans and of