xxxii 600 C.E to 1450 space, and brilliant light through soaring windows decorated with stained glass All major European cities would build cathedrals in the Gothic style until the 16th century Europe and the rest of the world owed much to Islamic civilization for the preservation of ancient Persian and Hellenistic manuscripts after the conquest of Persia and the eastern Mediterranean area by the first caliphs The early caliphs at Damascus encouraged the arts and education and established universities, the most famous being the al-Ahzar in Cairo, probably the oldest continuing university in the world The famous Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad attracted scholars from around the Mediterranean Islamic culture reached its zenith between the eighth and 13th centuries Arts and the sciences flourished during this era, called the golden age, and incorporated the earlier achievements of lands that the Arabs had conquered Scholars of many cultures, including Jewish, Zoroastrian, and Christian, worked together, translating Hebrew, Indian, and Persian texts into Arabic, the lingua franca of the entire Muslim Empire For example, major works of ancient Greek physicians and scientists such as Hippocrates and Galen were studied and advanced in centers from Baghdad to Granada in Spain Scientific Developments During the Islamic golden age from the eighth to 13th centuries, Arab and Muslim scientists and scholars were the most advanced in the fields of medicine and pharmacology as well as in applied sciences and mechanical engineering Scholars like Ibn Rushd (Averroës) and al-Kindi made major contributions to the knowledge of mathematics as well as music Muslim medical doctors and scientists were pioneers in treating such ailments as kidney stones and small pox Hospitals were established in many cities under Muslim rule Arab astronomers were influenced by the Ptolemaic (Earth-centered) system of the universe, based on which they developed new accurate tables of solar and lunar eclipses Their superiority to earlier calculations were such that Muslim astronomers were given employment in the Bureau of Astronomy in the Chinese court and were given the responsibility for calendar making and predicting eclipses until around 1600 when they were replaced by Jesuit astronomers from the by then more advanced Europe The first paper mill in the Islamic world was established in Baghdad in 793, followed by many others Paper was important to transmitting technological inventions among scholars of many cultures and enabled the growth of libraries with large collections Most of India’s many contributions to world civilization, including those in the sciences and technology, occurred before 600 The Indian subcontinent suffered repeated devastating conquests after 600 from Scythians, Huns, Afghans, and Turks Muslim raids and conquests launched by Afghans and Turks from Afghanistan were particularly destructive Besides destroying cultural centers and libraries, the invaders amassed huge amounts of loot, massacred the population, and deported many as slaves Indians gradually ceased sailing to other lands as they had done during earlier eras, when they had spread so much of their scientific and technological knowledge to the peoples of South and Southeast Asia However, many Arabs who came to India learned and spread much of Indian learning on mathematics (for example, the zero) and astronomy to other lands Many of China’s great scientific breakthroughs occurred before the era covered here, although knowledge continued to be advanced, refined, and spread throughout China and to other cultures Japan in particular was the beneficiary of many of China’s earlier inventions after 600 This was due to Japan’s policy to learn all major aspects of China’s civilization, starting around 600, that continued for several centuries An important example of technological breakthrough and diffusion is the stirrup The use of a loop made of rope or leather to assist people in mounting horses probably first began with the nomads north of China Expert at metal casting and needing to counter the threat of the nomads on their northern borders, the Chinese began to make cast iron stirrups in the third century Fierce nomads called Avars in the sixth century carried this invention to Europe as Avar attacks threatened the Byzantine Empire In response, Byzantine emperor Maurice Tiberius promulgated a military manual in 580 that specified the need for Byzantine cavalry to use iron stirrups After that, stirrups became universal throughout Eurasia China was also the first to make true porcelain in the third century through high-temperature firing in kilns In the next 1,000 years and beyond, all innovations and advances