empires and dynasties: The Americas 363 Jasaw Chan K’awiil II (869) By the ninth century Tikal, along with most other centers of the Classic Period, had been all but abandoned, and by the 10th and 11th centuries the jungle had reclaimed the once-great cities as its own South America Conventional scholarship subdivides Andean settlement into broad historical trends called horizons and intermediate periods Horizons feature widespread similarities in the art and culture of various areas that may be associated with the power of a cult, state, or empire Regional diversity, by contrast, is more characteristic of intermediate periods Together the two types of periods help to define settlement patterns and the manner in which various settlements interacted or related to one another Using these subdivisions the period from 500 to 1500 comprises the end of the Early Intermediate Period (100 b.c.e.–550 c.e.), the Middle Horizon (550–1000), the Late Intermediate Period (1000–1430), and the Late Horizon (1434–1532) The Spaniard Francisco Pizarro arrived in Peru in 1532, and the great Inca civilization, then at its climax, soon fell In the south-central highlands of Peru and Bolivia, beginning around 600, the Tiwanaku state began an aggressive expansion out of the southern Titicaca Basin, so called for its relation to the lake of the same name—Lake Titicaca—the epicenter of the largest agricultural center in the highlands The site of Tiwanaku itself is a vast, planned urban capital that sprawled over the landscape of the altiplano, or high plain At its height from 800 to 900 Tiwanaku boasted an impressive architectural core of pyramids, temples, palaces, streets, and state buildings Surrounding the core of the capital was an urban settlement of artisans, laborers, and farmers who lived in adobe structures up and down the valley Current estimates suggest that the total urban settlement covered an area of roughly square miles, with a population in the valley ranging from 30,000 to 60,000 Large areas of intensified agricultural production are associated with Tiwanaku populations around the basin At its height, including the surrounding area, the Tiwanaku state possibly reached a population of 100,000 people Tiwanaku artifacts and colonies are found throughout the area surrounding the Titicaca basin and beyond Colonies are suspected in Moquegua, the Cochabamba and Larecaja regions of Bolivia, and the Arequipa area of Peru It seems that Tiwanaku was not able to maintain an Inca-style empire by incorporating large, contiguous areas but that it selectively controlled economically and militarily strategic areas Tiwanaku declined in the 11th century Roughly contemporary with, and possibly sharing origin with, Tiwanaku was the highland Wari culture, an expansive state that stretched from the Cuzco area in southern Peru to Cajamarca in the north For a long time the nature of the relationship between Tiwanaku and Wari was debated Enigmatic might best describe it, because it seems to have been antagonistic when needed and cooperative when demanded Each had religious and military aspects as well as being economic hubs Overall, however, Wari took a more militaristic stance The capital site, also called Huari, is at the center of up to square miles that have been attributed to the Wari urban complex, which includes nearly 500 acres of stone architecture and 740 acres of domestic residences Provincial Wari settlements tended to be rigid and intrusive, akin to military compounds, and seem intended to dominate and organize the region within which they sat For example, the settlement of Pikillacta, located near Cuzco, was built on a grid, had 700 individual structures, occupied square mile of land, was surrounded by a multistory wall, and had a single entrance leading along a long, easily policed corridor Before the rise of the Inca, the Chimú Empire (or Chimor) flourished from about 1000 to 1470 Its capital was the site of Chan Chan in the Moche valley on the northern coast of Peru Chan Chan’s urban core covered roughly square miles, with surrounding ruins covering nearly square miles, and was entirely occupied by 11 immense, high-walled adobe ciudadelas—a combination of royal palaces, administrative and storage spaces, and mausoleums At the height of its power Chimú controlled the northernmost 600 miles of the Peruvian coast, a desert region cut through intermittently by a series of fertile river valleys Little is known for certain about Chimú government, its rules of succession, and social structure, but it is suspected that Chimú was ruled by divine or semidivine kings who personified the state Traditional history maintains that the founder of the royal dynasties of Chimú was a personage named Tacaynamo, whose son Guacricaur undertook the conquest of the lower Moche valley In turn, his son, Nancenpinco, is said to have conquered a number of neighboring valleys, as did the seven successive rulers until Minchancaman, the Chimú sovereign whom the Inca faced in the 15th century Chimú apparently shared certain traits with their eventual conquerors Like Chimú, the Inca expanded through military conquest, were economically organized by a system of labor tax supervised by the state administrative system, and embarked on large programs of land reclamation for agricultural use By 1438 the Inca imperial campaign had begun The land of the Inca, known by its inhabitants as Tahuantinsuyu, or “Land of the Four Quarters,” was one of the world’s great imperial states At its maximum extent it stretched over 3,000 miles from northern Ecuador to just south of Santiago,