74 architecture: Europe in Wrocław, Poland These, however, are just a handful of the hundreds of Romanesque buildings that can be found in these countries as well as in Italy, Portugal, Austria, the Netherlands, and the Czech Republic Norman architecture in many respects was not a distinct style but rather an offshoot of the Romanesque, and some architectural historians regard Romanesque and Norman architecture as essentially the same In 1042 Edward the Confessor became king of England Edward had spent much of his early life in Normandy, France, so he and his court brought with them many French customs and influences It was Edward who began construction of the famous Westminster Abbey in London, a building that now reflects the later Gothic style Then, in 1066, William the Conqueror invaded and subdued England and was crowned king on Christmas Day that year William, too, was from Normandy, so the Norman influence on English architecture was cemented during his reign and that of his successors William appropriated much of the wealth of the English nobles and turned it over to the church The result was what amounted to almost a building frenzy in England, as English bishops tried to outdo one another in the magnificence of their buildings At the same time, the English nobles tried to match the bishops in a frenzy of castle building About the nobles, the contemporary historian William of Malmesbury (ca 1080/1095–ca 1143), in his Gesta regum Anglorum (Chronicle of the Kings of England) wrote: “Nearly all tried to rival one another in sumptuous buildings in the Norman style, for the nobles felt that day lost which they had not celebrated with some deed of magnificence.” Norman architecture was similar in many important respects to Romanesque architecture It featured rounded arches, barrel vaults, thick piers, and massive walls, though sometimes the walls were not as thick as those of continental buildings because the ceilings they supported were made of lighter-weight wood rather than stone Also, because of England’s damp climate, Norman-style buildings did not feature much in the way of external carving and sculpture, for builders feared it would rapidly deteriorate in the damp Modern historians of architecture can find only distant echoes of the Norman style The reason is that most Norman buildings later underwent remodeling in the Gothic style Thus, for example, rounded Romanesque arches were replaced by pointed Gothic arches In many cases only the original Norman floor plan remains The only pure Norman building remaining in England is the cathedral at Durham, begun in 1093 This cathedral, though, was just one of many that were built in the Norman style but later altered Others, with the date construction began, are identified only by their location and include York Minster (1075), Saint Alban’s Capital with figures representing Luxury and Lust; yellow sandstone, Spain, ca 1175–ca 1200 (Los Angeles County Museum of Art, William Randolph Hearst Collection, Photograph © 2006 Museum Associates/ LACMA) Abbey (1075), Ely Cathedral (1081), the cathedral at Rochester (1083), the cathedral at Worcester (1084), Old Saint Paul’s (1087), Gloucester (1089), Norwich (1096), Chichester (1100), Tewkesbury (1103), Exeter (1112), Peterborough (1116), Romsey Abbey (1120), Fountains Abbey (1140), and Saint David’s in Wales (1176) The term Gothic was originally coined during the Renaissance and used as a pejorative The word is a reference to the Goths, one of the “barbaric” tribes of northern Europe, and it was first used in the sixteenth century to refer to anything regarded as crude It has nothing to do, though, with the Goths themselves Applied to architecture, it suggested something crude and barbaric In the 19th century, though, interest in Gothic architecture revived, and art historians, critics, and the public began to regard it more favorably Gothic architecture, like Romanesque architecture before it, can be found all over Europe, as architects and builders traveled about and shared their techniques with one another The Gothic, though, is especially associated with France, and no tourist to France, particularly to Paris and its environs, is likely to miss two of the most magnificent examples of Gothic architecture, the cathedral at Chartres and the Notre-Dame cathedral in Paris itself Other noteworthy Gothic buildings include Westminster Abbey in London, the Salisbury Cathedral in England, the Strasbourg Cathedral in France, the multicolored Siena Cathedral in Italy, and the Spanish cathedrals in Salamanca and Santiago de Compostela Historians of architecture often divide Gothic architecture into variations, which emerged as the Gothic style devel-