empires and dynasties: The Americas 361 The founder of the Aztec imperial line was Acamapichtli, elected king (tlatoani) in 1376 On his death his son, Huitzílhuitl (r 1395–1417), was elected, followed by Acamapichtli’s grandson Chimalpopoca (r 1417–27) and then his other son Itzcóatl (r 1427–40) The Mexico basin was essentially composed of a system of competing city-states, and under Itzcóatl, Tenochtitlán allied itself with Texcoco and Tlacopán, two other regional city-states, to form what is commonly called the Triple Alliance Beginning in 1428 the three allied powers first succeeded in conquering powerful city-states, notably Chalco During the reign of Motecuhzoma I (r 1440–68) the Triple Alliance expanded far beyond the basin Succeeding Aztec tlatoani include Axayácatl, Tízoc, Ahuítzotl, and Motecuhzoma II, who was the last ruler before the Spanish conquest In the course of developing the empire the Aztec made substantial achievements: They built major waterworks and causeways, expanded chinampa (raised field) agriculture, promoted ceremonial and public architecture within urban centers, and raised standards of living The strength of the Aztec military grew as well Warfare became idealized and unremitting, long-range military campaigns grew commonplace, and ever-increasing tributes from conquered regions were expected As the empire extended its control over more distant and diverse city-states and regions, control became more tenuous Enemy states such as the Tarascans to the west and the Tlaxcalans to the east remained independent, and quelling rebellions and reconquering upstart city-states necessitated great expenditures of money and materiel Imperial strategies for establishing and maintaining control can be divided into four areas—economic, political, frontier, and elite—each geared toward expansionist objectives The economic strategy was to control resources, emphasizing production and exchange with the goal of expanding trade and diversifying goods Conquered city-states were grouped into tributary provinces; tribute was a scheduled, repetitive, and relatively predictable form of delivering products to the imperial centers Tribute items included large quantities of food staples such as maize, beans, cacao, honey, salt, and chilies; textiles and clothing items such as garments, raw cotton, and cochineal dye; jewelry and luxuries such as colorful feathers, lip plugs, amber, turquoise masks, and gold bars; and miscellaneous products like copal incense, paper, and pottery bowls The Codex Mendoza, one of the few painted manuscripts to survive the conquest, contains a list of all tribute items brought to Tenochtitlán from the periphery While tribute was meant specifically for the benefit of the imperial center, the demands of production nonetheless stimulated commercial activity and interaction in outlying areas, with the fortuitous effect of encouraging cohesion based on intertwining interests and needs The political strategy emphasized controlling political competitors by diffusing the power of local rulers (tlatoque) and making sure formerly autonomous states were dependent on their new imperial center After conquering a city-state, the Aztec most often left existing political structures intact, so long as the conquered people agreed to pay tribute and accept the Aztec god Huitzilopochtli Sometimes, however, the Aztec directly interfered with local political offices by eliminating some, downgrading others, and creating new administrative positions and installing persons who were family of the Mexica ruler In a few particularly unstable areas, the Aztec installed powerful governors, military garrisons, or forts The frontier strategy focused on goals of security and containment along hostile imperial borders Especially hostile borders to the east and west inhabited by the Tlaxcalans and the Tarascans, respectively, necessitated establishing fortresses, dispatching garrisons of warriors, and sending colonists to strengthen frontier regions In the case of the Tarascans, to whom the Aztec suffered a disastrous defeat in 1478 or 1479, the Aztec established several client states along the border to act as a kind of strategic province or buffer zone Situated along dynamic borders, the obligations of the client states included maintaining trade routes and stabilizing the border The elite strategy emphasized economic, social, and political links among elites throughout the imperial domain These links were established through the reciprocal exchange of luxury goods, marriage alliances, and the shared use of common symbols and restricted cultural codes, such as writing and palace architecture Perhaps the most interesting consequence of this level of interaction stemmed from the need for successful communication To facilitate communication, Nahuatl, the native language of the Mexica, was imposed on the provincial regions as a kind of lingua franca; specific forms of manuscript painting spread; and new forms of stylistic interaction involving painted ceramics, mural painting, and manuscripts helped bind the elite into a kind of interacting social class The Aztec succeeded in their imperial campaigns until the arrival in Tenochtitlán of the Spanish, led by Hernán Cortés, in 1521 The Maya Unlike the Aztec and Inca civilizations, the Maya never constituted a unified or coherent empire but rather were divided into more than 60 kingdoms, each ruled by a “divine lord” and constantly struggling to maintain their autonomy or conquer their neighbor The Classic Period marks the height of Mayan influence, largely in the central area, though they were never