262 crafts: The Islamic World Syria and Mesopotamia, and later the cities of Damascus and Cairo evolved into the most important centers of manufacturing pottery and glass Medieval 13th-century Syrian ceramic wares included fine examples of luster with underglaze techniques, which typically appeared in turquoise and black colors In this period Syria also produced three-dimensional glazed ceramic sculptures, such as animals, horses, and human figures The use of blue cobalt and lapis lazuli mineral pigments that appear as beautiful shades of blue was another hallmark of Islamic pottery From 1260 to 1368 cobalt mineral pigments, known as Mohammedan blue, were a commodity in China and were imported from the Middle East The use of new pigments and minerals resulted in completely new coloring techniques and the development of color-enameled ceramic wares These techniques offered many advantages to pottery artists and encouraged them to use a wide variety of mediums and decorations The craft of glassmaking also developed dramatically in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages Damascus and Aleppo were major centers for the production of enameled glassware Phoenician and Roman techniques of glassmaking were still influential in the Syrian glass industry before it reached new heights during the Islamic period Syria produced famous articles for the demanding Muslim and Western markets Blown pipe glass was produced through many different techniques to create valuable wares The spiral fluted effect, the honeycomb, carving, and other decorative elements were commonly applied to glass vessels One of the popular objects produced by the Syrian glass industry was the inscribed glass lamp It was produced in large quantities for mosques Metals and mining played an important role in the working economy of medieval Islamic countries Metals were mined and produced in large quantities for domestic consumption as well as for export Craftsmen and professionals in the Islamic world converted metal into valuable goods for demanding markets Metal objects produced from steel, copper, tin, and brass included such items as kitchenware, vessels of various sizes, incense burners, and lamp stands for household and commercial uses with a range of working techniques These objects were cast, wrought, pierced, or drawn from metal Decorating techniques included engraving, chiseling, damascening by inlay, embossing, laceworking, gilding, and incrustation The popularity of cast bronze and brass forms was significant in the Middle Ages Large numbers of cast-bronze items of different styles were mass-produced in eastern Iran The most popular items in the marketplaces of the Middle East were bronze lamp stands, decorative items, caskets, Stone-paste jar painted in black under turquoise glaze; Syria, late 12th to early 13th centuries (Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Gift of Charles Lang Freer) and inkwell bases Most scientific instruments were made of brass The best-known scientific objects made of brass are astrolabes, used by astronomers, navigators, and surveyors These articles are exceptional examples of the arts and crafts of the period, with their rich inlay and embossing techniques Many surviving objects of this period include the names of the artists and makers Metalwork reached its height of technical sophistication in 13th century, when some of the artisans migrated westward from Afghanistan and Iran owing to the invasion of the Mongols These artisans settled in Iraq, where the major center of metal production was Mosul (in modern-day northern Iraq) The industry also flourished in eastern Anatolia, Damascus, and Cairo at the same time In this period Mosul was very famous for its red copper, silver, and even gold inlay craft artistry, which employed an earlier Iranian technique In the later part of 13th century, under the patronage of the Mamluk Dynasty, Cairo advanced as a major center of commerce and artisanship Mamluk metalwork is notable for its mass production It became possible to produce metal objects in large quantities and to fabricate elaborate objects in a