I • ▶ illumination introduction Managing light was of concern to many medieval cultures With some variations, there were five main sources of light: the sun, fires, candles, oil lamps, and lanterns In China people sometimes placed fireflies into lanterns, but lanterns usually had candles inside them Lanterns were made of bamboo, wooden, or metal frames, around which paper or cloth was wrapped and glued Decorated coverings would shine when the candle was lighted Oil lamps consisted of two main parts: a vessel for holding the fuel and a notch or nozzle for placing a wick Oil lamps were used in many different parts of the world, and as a consequence the sorts of fuels varied according to available sources North Americans sometimes used tar or petroleum that had risen into pools on the surface Most people used either animal fats or oils from plants In the Americas and eastern Asia fish oil was often burned In India oils came from cinnamon and other plants, in Africa it came from palm nuts and animal fat, in the Islamic world it came mostly from olives, and in Europe it came from animal fats, grain, and olives Candles were not as widely used as were oil lamps They were made from boiled animal fat or from molten beeswax into which a wick was dipped When lighted, it was the burning fuel that provided the flame A pool of oil or wax would pool at the candle’s peak, and it was this that was burned Sometimes candles were used to tell time; the candle would be marked with numbers or other indications of the time In religious institutions it was important that the person in charge of the candles replaced it each day, usually at dawn, just after he or she awakened Fires played central roles in many people’s lives In Indian homes married couples had fires in their hearths that were meant never to be allowed to go out, because the fire represented their marital union If it did go out, the married couple had to go through several rituals before the fire could be relit For people living outdoors, fires could be the centers of their community For instance, Australians would tell stories and pass on information about their religion or their daily techniques of survival to the young In Europe travelers would gather around campfires and share their stories Sunlight was both friend and enemy It provided much better light than did lanterns, lamps, candles, or fires, but its light could become oppressive and could be so bright as to be blinding Many cultures tried to find ways to manage sunlight to their benefit In the Near East people often used latticework in their windows to soften the sunlight that passed through Other people built courtyards that would be bathed in sunlight, but the people would their business in shadows cast by overhanging eaves or verandas All these sources of light often had religious significance For those people who believed that the sun was a god, finding ways to incorporate the sun into their religious rituals was important Many religions used sunlight to heighten the effects 561