256 crafts: Asia and the Pacific before the arrival of Columbus in 1492 They produced various distinctive crafts of stone, plant fibers, and wood Taíno artisans crafted objects from stone into mortars and pestles, ceremonial and utilitarian weapons, and various vessels and sculptures Special baskets known as cibucanes were used for processing manioc, a root crop that was integral to Taíno subsistence, have been found in domestic contexts at archaeological sites Other baskets, called jabas, were crafted from cotton, hemp, and banana leaves, and used for storage purposes Duhos, or wooden ritual chairs, are among the most important craft objects of the Taínos, directly associated with divine rulership and used primarily by high-ranking individuals during ceremonies They were a device used to distinguish the elites from the commoners, somewhat analogous to thrones in European aristocracies or petates (woven floor mats) in Mesoamerica A duho also symbolized the human being’s transportation into the spiritual realm, serving as a seat during cohoba rituals, at which participants partook of hallucinogenic substances Artisans crafted duhos from highquality woods such as mahogany, onto which they would carve geometric designs in low relief and finish with several layers of resin In North America elaborate wooden boats and sculptures of all sizes from miniatures to larger-than-life totem poles were created by people inhabiting the northwestern coastal region of present-day Oregon, Washington, western Canada, and Alaska Ecological factors made the region unsuitable for ceramic production; thus stone and wooden vessels as well as tightly woven baskets took the place of clay pots Potlatch ceremonies in which elites redistributed their material wealth to the rest of the population involved the exchange of various crafts, including feathered headdresses, wooden masks, finely painted vessels, baskets, and textiles Artisans of the Mississippian cultures (ca 750–ca 1500) of the present-day eastern United States were expert stone carvers, producing finely detailed sculptures of humans and animals found in both domestic and funerary contexts Among the Hopi of the American Southwest the continuing tradition of producing kachina dolls (representing ancestral spirits) possesses deep roots Used in ceremonies to ensure bountiful harvests, successful hunts, and fertility, the dolls were fashioned out of wood with painted decorations, although archaeological evidence suggests that they remained relatively simple, with few accoutrements, in the prehistoric era It was not until modern times that kachinas were adorned with feathers and elaborate painted designs Basketry remained an important craft for all North American cultures, acquiring ever more elaborate designs and weaving techniques through time Using various wild plants, basket makers had to undergo extensive technical processes to prepare the fibers for weaving Depending on the type of plant, the process could involve soaking, pounding, partially cooking, or steaming the fibers Both coiling and plaiting techniques for weaving baskets were employed by basket makers throughout North America Coiling called for the tight twisting of strands of plant fibers, beginning at the base and gradually spiraling around to create the body of the basket Plaiting required the braiding and subsequent stitching of strands into a body Both of these basic techniques, among countless others, allowed for the creation of baskets to fulfill many needs, including storage, cooking, personal adornment, and ceremonial functions Crafts throughout the Americas took on a diversity of forms during the medieval period, attaining culture-specific functions and significances that occurred in tandem with large-scale political, social, and economic transformations Crafts fashioned out of local and imported materials served innumerable purposes, from assisting in basic subsistence activities to articulating the ideologies of an empire With the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century, many of these traditions died out as indigenous populations were devastated by disease, exploitation, and warfare More commonly, however, artisans incorporated new design schemes and iconography into their practices to keep up with the rapidly changing needs and demands of colonial society while retaining many of their ancient forms and techniques Asia and the Pacific by Kirk H Beetz Crafts varied enormously across Asia and the Pacific during the medieval period, based on the availability of materials and cultural preferences Even in the simplest culture, crafts could be complicated, requiring careful design and patient work Basketry came the closest to being the universal craft of medieval Asian and Pacific regions, with nearly every culture using baskets In Oceania, Indonesia, and the Philippines baskets were essential to the everyday lives of people, but in China they were less important because of the many alternatives for storing and carrying the goods produced in China’s advanced manufacturing society Baskets were made of perishable materials such as reeds and bamboo; thus most of the baskets created during the medieval era have decayed Unable to determine the full range of basketry from that time, anthropologists study the basketry of modern people in traditional societies and infer what it was like hundreds of years earlier Baskets made in the arid areas of Australia had a better chance of surviving over long periods Most of these extant baskets are made of tightly woven reeds In general, baskets