architecture: The Americas 63 to an imperial state There are many existing examples of Aztec-style architecture found in peripheral sites like Tepoztlán (near Cuernavaca) and Malinalco (southwest of Mexico City) that demonstrate the influence and dominance of the Aztec before the Spanish conquest South America Like the cultures active in Mesoamerica at this time, those in South America produced equally sophisticated and innovative architectural forms Building on the traditions of previous cultures, such as the Chavín and the Moche, medieval South Americans constructed large and complex city centers throughout the central Andes During the Middle Horizon Period (ca 500–ca 1000) two competing cultures developed in modern-day northern Chile and Peru Both Tiwanaku and Wari (also Huari) wielded tremendous power and influence and were equally sophisticated and organized, but they developed distinct architectural traditions Located near Lake Titicaca (between Bolivia and Peru), the city of Tiwanaku began around 375 and collapsed sometime around 1000 The plan of the site most likely was designed to reflect the religious and political power of the Tiwanaku, as it seems to recreate on a smaller scale an island floating in the great lake of Titicaca Similarly, great pains were taken to ensure the division of sacred space One of the most unusual features of this site is a man-made moat that encapsulated the center and defined it as sacred space Within this center was the large, seven-terraced pyramid called Akapana, standing 56 feet high The basic structure was formed from earth and gravel that was then faced in cut stone that showed off the remarkable skill of Tiwanaku stonemasons A sunken courtyard was built into the top of the temple and was used primarily for elite residences Buried within the pyramid itself was a system of drains, which turned the entire structure into a big fountain Once water collected in the top terrace, it would be carried by drainpipes to the next and would then spill over onto the subsequent level Another important architectural development found at Tiwanaku is the Gateway to the Sun, located in a second city center of Tiwanaku The Gateway to the Sun is a portal carved from a single stone, and it features a double-jamb door The upper part of the gate is covered in carved stone relief featuring both Tiwanaku and Wari images The Wari capital was located in the Ayacucho Valley of the central highlands in Peru This site features a relatively irregular plan, and much of the remaining monumental architecture consists of high, multistory stone walls Tiwanaku influence is evident in the appearance of Tiwanaku-style stonework on temples and burial chambers that are faced with expertly cut stone slabs Located near the modern-day city of Lima, Peru, Chan Chan was the chief city of the expansive Chimor (sometimes called Chimú) kingdom The site of the Late Intermediate Period (ca 1000–ca 1400) is most notable for its use of adobe It is arranged into several rectangular enclosures called ciudadelas (or citadels) that are surrounded by adobe brick walls reaching up to 60 feet high The arrangement of structures within the enclosures varies from highly symmetrical to irregular, and the structures themselves range from royal palaces to storage chambers Two of these enclosed compounds, Uhle and Tello, feature U-shaped structures known as audience rooms that probably served an administrative function During the later phases of Chan Chan construction, ciudadelas such as Rivero, Bandolier, and Tschudi demonstrate a fairly regular layout, and the structures grow more and more complex in their designs Many of these royal compounds feature geometric adobe relief decorations and openwork walls that resemble textile patterns By the end of the Late Intermediate Period most of the Andes were under Inca control While Incan architecture may at first seem overly simple, with further investigation the complexity of their stonework and innovative city planning may be understood The Inca were often forced to find means of building in the inhospitable landscape of the high Andean mountains The most distinguishing characteristic of Incan architecture of the Late Horizon (ca 1400–ca 1534) is the labor-intensive use of carefully carved monolithic stonework and the alteration of the natural landscape to meet the functional needs of the people The manipulation of the natural rock outcroppings from the Andean mountains is one of the most significant innovations made by the Inca These outcroppings were altered to take on the shape of organic or abstract forms such as semicircles or zigzags Sometimes outcroppings served a practical function in the form of irrigated terraces for planting crops But others, as may be seen at Qenqo and Ollantaytambo, served primarily as ceremonial spaces that engage a series of steps and channels to create geometric designs The capital city of Cuzco, located in the Urubamba Valley in the Andes of southeastern Peru, is a carefully planned city that served as the ceremonial and political center of the Inca Empire The planning of this city was so calculated that it took on the shape of an animal sacred to the Inca, the puma This animal shape was defined by a system of roads and the use of astronomically oriented lines As the Inca believed that stone was a living being, its use carried significant symbolic weight Buildings and walls were constructed using monoliths, or single stones, that feature carefully articulated beveled edges This carving style allows the stones to fit perfectly together without the use of mortar, almost like puzzle pieces,