108 art: The Islamic World cally stirrup shaped, while the most common shape for pendants and earrings was the crescent On some jewels animal images were used The artistic traditions of the Fatimids were adopted in part by the Marinids from the south of Morocco (1196–1465), who faced the North African political scene in the 13th century In 1269 they became the new rulers and chose the city of Fès as the center of their power The Merinids built numerous mosques and madrasas, whose internal and external walls were richly decorated Mosaic tile work covered the lower part of the wall, while the upper part was embellished by intricately carved stucco panels with flowers and plants The two areas were linked by a frieze with Koran inscriptions The ceilings were hidden by beautifully carved wooden panels and the pavements by mosaic tile work In the Moroccan decorative arts the artistic influence from al-Andalus (Spain) is undeniable, but it was accomplished by the nomad Berbers, who still live in the Atlas Mountains Their presence had an important impact on carpet and ceramic production as well as on jewelry production Goldsmiths and silversmiths created beautiful bracelets, necklaces, earrings, and bent knives using the filigree technique with the application of semiprecious stones The alAndalus trend also emerges clearly in the Koran books In southern Spain and North Africa the manuscripts were still copied on parchment and not on paper Syria and Egypt (12th Century to 14th Century) At the end of the 12th century Saladin (1137 or 1138–93), known for his role in the fights against the crusaders, founded the Ayyubid Dynasty (1169–1260) The kings ruled a huge empire that stretched from Syria and Egypt to Yemen and Arabia In the decorative arts, artisans were particularly skilled in producing copper and bronze vessels, inlaid with silver and gold Among the stunning pieces created with this technique, the celestial globes and the pilgrim flasks are particularly impressive The celestial globes were carved with the boreal (northern) and austral (southern) hemispheres and the 12 signs of the zodiac, showing the interest of Muslim astrologists and astronomers in the sky and the stars The flasks were used by Christians during their pilgrimages to the Holy Land, and the decoration recalls events from the life of Jesus Ayyubid craftsmen excelled in the production of ivory boxes as well Some of them reached Europe and were added to the church’s treasures, as gifts of the crusaders A large group of extant manuscripts with miniature paintings belongs to the Ayyubid Period The first examples are translations of famous books of antiquity The Book of Antidotes, written by the Greek physician Galen (129–ca 199), describes a series of remedies for poisoning, and De materia medica, written by the Greek physician Dioscorides (ca 40–ca 190), is a work on the medicinal properties of plants In the 13th century literary books became popular For example, Kalila and Dimma includes animal characters and fairy tales with moral teachings, and Maqamat (Assemblies) by Hariri (1054–1122) offers anecdotes that mirror the society of that time In 1250, thanks to the marriage between the last queen of the Ayyubids, Shajar ad-Durr, and the chief of the army, Aybak, power passed to a new dynasty, the Bahri Mamluks (1250–1382), who were succeeded by the Burgi or Circassian Mamluks (1382–1517) Sultans, emirs, and high-ranking members of the court ordered luxurious objects because they loved being surrounded by beauty and boldness and wanted to hide their common origins Artisans created handsome pieces in all media, but probably the most representative are those made in glass, metal, and ivory The ability of the glassmakers emerges, in particular, in mosque lamps, flasks, and bowls The lamps were from the ceilings of religious buildings and usually bore the inscription “Verse of Light,” taken from sura 24 of the Koran Flasks and bowls were decorated with scenes of courtly life as well as earth and marine animals Among the metal pieces, the mirrors occupy a special place The most sumptuous examples were made in steel, richly inlaid with gold and silver The 12 signs of the zodiac were the common iconography, revealing the Mamluks’ interest in magic and astrology Craftsmen excelled in the production of ivory and wooden pieces The most handsome objects are those created by the combination of two media In these cases, doors of buildings, minbars, and Koran boxes were made in wood, enriched with carved geometric motifs in ivory The opulence in the Mamluk arts is reflected also in the production of Koran books and miniature paintings The Koran books were lavishly decorated on the frontispieces and the chapter headings Many frontispieces and finispieces have been enriched with star-shaped motifs on a background of polygonal forms Some Koran books were decorated with gold and had monumental dimensions with pages even a yard in length Together with Koran books, the Mamluks ordered literary and scientific works, such as the Maqamat, and bestiaries (works related to animals), medical texts, and books on horsemanship Khorasan, Afghanistan, and India (10th Century to 13th Century) At the end of the 10th century the Turkic tribe the Ghaznavids (977–1186) came to power In a few decades their territories spread from Khorasan (in northeastern Iran) and Afghani-