alchemy and magic: The Islamic World 51 The most important of the medieval alchemists was Roger Bacon (ca 1220–92), also called Doctor Mirabilis, or “wonderful teacher.” He was an English Franciscan friar who worked as a professor at Oxford and the University of Paris He performed numerous scientific experiments and formed many ideas that he describes in his book Opus majus (Greater Work, 1268) This book covers scientific and mystical topics, including the influence of the planets on human life, the visible spectrum of light, and the chemistry of gunpowder Bacon’s work influenced all subsequent European alchemists Alchemists of the 14th and 15th centuries were more like magicians than scientists In their writings they generally assemble the work of earlier scholars rather than conducting and reporting on new experiments themselves Their main interests were finding the philosopher’s stone and the elixir of youth Many of them were persecuted as witches or sorcerers who were said to work against good Christian practices Nicholas Flamel (ca 1330–1417) spent his life searching for the philosopher’s stone and claimed to have discovered it through a copy of the Book of Abraham that he purchased in Spain He said that he could indeed turn base metals into gold and also claimed that he and his wife had achieved immortality The German alchemist Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (1486–1535) wrote a treatise called Libri tres de occulta philosophia (Three Books on Occult Philosophy, 1531), in which he describes the interaction of the natural world and the occult Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus (1493– 1541) is credited with transforming medieval alchemy into a more modern science and rejecting the image of the alchemist as a magician Church officials began taking a narrow view of witches and sorcerers in the early 1300s Around this time magic, alchemy, and witchcraft became associated with Christian heresy Many were accused of consorting with demons Both alchemists and so-called witches used secret symbols and incantations in their work, giving rise to the suspicion that they had entered into pacts with the devil Pope John XXII (1249–1334) issued an edict in 1326 forbidding priests and monks to practice alchemy During the 14th century several people were tried for witchcraft or sorcery in France and Italy Witch trials began occurring in England in the early 15th century European witches were not persecuted on a major scale until the end of the medieval period The first large European witch hunt occurred in Switzerland in 1427 The German book Malleus maleficarum (The Hammer of Witches), by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, was published in Germany in 1486 and became the scholarly basis for subsequent prosecution of witches The height of the witch craze actually occurred during the early modern period, between 1580 and 1660 The Islamic World by Daniel Nicolae Alchemy and magic are often named together in medieval Islamic treatises even though they are two different concepts Alchemy generally denotes the science of transmuting base metals into gold, while magic could apply to nearly anything wondrous Alchemy, as the precursor of modern chemistry, was a science of the laboratory, and its practice was thus not as widespread among the general population as were magical practices Both terms, however, have a common reference to secret sciences Moreover, they are used as polemical terms against heresies in general The hermetic tradition of late antiquity notably influenced alchemy and magic practiced among Muslims Alchemy originated among the Greeks, and Arabic alchemical treatises generally aim to imitate their Greek models Muslim alchemists tried to attract attention by using pseudonyms such as Hippocrates, Plato, or Aristotle As for magical artifacts, pre-Islamic mystical imagery featuring lions, serpents, and scorpions can be found on talismans Yet magic after the rise of Islam differed in many aspects, such as in the abandoning of animal sacrifice, the use of curse tablets, or the use of dolls to destroy the enemy The Koran and the sayings of the Prophet (hadith) depict a strict monotheism and not admit the existence of powers other than those of God Magic is strictly forbidden Nonetheless, the scriptures give credibility to supernatural forces other than God The Koran concludes with two suras (or chapters) that are frequently used among the common people to protect themselves from evil forces Sura 113 mentions the Semitic magical practice of blowing upon knots made in a certain fashion to tie good or evil One hadith records that someone bewitched the Prophet using this method and that he would recover only after having recited suras 113 and 114 In the same way, the first sura is used as a talisman; like the other two, it is written on paper, cloth, or stone to be carried on one’s body In medical literature these suras would be applied in the treatment of illnesses caused by evil forces, particularly in the practice of exorcism The Koran alludes to an origin of magic according to which two angels, Harut and Marut, were condemned by God to live on the earth, because they had fallen in love with a woman Out of malice they then taught humankind the practice of magic Moreover, we find accusations by the enemies of Islam that Muhammad himself was a magician, since he captured the masses through his rhetorical skills Most Islamic amulets and talismanic objects took the form of pious invocations to God, comprising prayers or Koranic quotations In this respect they differed substantially