50 alchemy and magic: Europe proficient alchemists of the early medieval period practiced their art in the Middle East Europeans discovered their works in the 1100s, when many Arabic texts and the works of the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 b.c.e.) were translated into Latin European scholars became captivated with alchemical ideas, such as the concept that all substances could transform into a more pure and perfect state Medieval European alchemists pursued their goals using a combination of techniques, some of them not very different from modern scientific observation and others derived from mysticism, tradition, and magic Alchemists sought several things They are perhaps best known for their efforts to transform base metals (ordinary metals, such as iron) into gold They also tried to brew a potion called a panacea, or a cure-all, that would restore youth, prolong life, and cure all diseases Although these goals were impossible to achieve, medieval alchemists did accomplish a great deal of scientific inquiry that paved the way for the development of the modern fields of chemistry, physics, and metallurgy Alchemical experiments resulted in the creation of dyes and pigments, the invention of different types of acid and other chemical compounds, insights into the properties of metals, and techniques for brewing various types of alcoholic beverages Alchemists were hampered in their pursuits by their lack of understanding of the properties of matter They believed that all matter was made up of four elements: fire, water, air, and earth This belief derived from the teachings of Aristotle Alchemists theorized that each element was either hot or cold and wet or dry and that each metal had all of these properties They reasoned that if they could rearrange these properties within a metal, they could transform it into a different kind of metal, ideally gold Many alchemists believed that the transmutation of ordinary metals, such as lead, into gold could be facilitated by using a substance called the philosopher’s stone No one knows exactly what the philosopher’s stone was, though it seems to have been imagined in powder form Alchemists tended to love secrecy and symbols The foundations of their work were spiritual as well as physical, and much of their scholarship was based on mythology and mysticism They also used astrology to explain physical phenomena Consequently, the writings of alchemists were full of multiple meanings and cryptic suggestions, making them appear magical to the uneducated Many of the best-known scholars of medieval Europe were alchemists Most of them were members of the clergy, mainly because the clergy were nearly the only people who knew how to read and who had access to books The first scholars to venture into this field started with Arabic works on science and mathematics Pope Sylvester II (ca 945–1003) studied Arabic texts on science, mathematics, and astrology Non-Christian Incantations Magical incantations or spells were common throughout medieval Europe If a person wanted to achieve some result, such as bringing rain or making someone fall in love, he or she could probably find a series of words that, if spoken with the correct gestures and at the right moment, would have the desired effect Although Christianity was widespread in medieval Europe, people saw no impediment to using charms and spells in addition to officially sanctioned prayers The fact that an incantation might go against Christian doctrine apparently did not stand in the way Most incantations were passed on orally because most medieval people could not read or write Some incantations, however, did survive because they were written down For one reason or another, occasionally a priest or a monk would write down the words of local spells Some of these manuscripts survive today One of the most interesting of these manuscripts is the one that contains the Merseburg Incantations These manuscripts, found in Germany, describe spells to free prisoners and to cure horses of broken legs What is intriguing about the Merseburg Incantations is that they invoke the names of ancient Germanic gods, including Odin, Freya, and the Valkyries Most medieval incantations, if they mentioned the divine at all, would have invoked the Christian god, Mary, or some other inarguably Christian figure The Merseburg Incantations were composed in pre-Christian times, sometime before 750 The fact that a Christian cleric chose to write them down 300 or 400 years later suggests that people were still using these particular spells, Germanic deities and all, in an era when Christianity was supposedly supreme in Spain and introduced them into Europe He was said to be a sorcerer The English scholar Adelard of Bath traveled throughout the Arab world in the early 12th century and brought back with him several Arabic texts on astronomy and mathematics By the late 12th century the works of Arabic scholars and Aristotle were more readily available to Europeans Albertus Magnus (ca 1200–80) supported the coexistence of science and religion He was an excellent scientist for his time and wrote a great deal about botany, zoology, astronomy, and other topics, including music, particularly the way in which music could purify the soul His work on astrology gave him the reputation of being a magician