332 economy: The Islamic World agricultural areas and commerce, as nomads perpetually sought pasturelands for their flocks Following their practice of caravan raids, Bedouins also continually attacked villages and towns Along with a new taxation system, farmers gradually abandoned their fields, townspeople relocated, and local economies became increasingly pastoral and nomadic In Syria the Muslim conquest created a new political border between it and Byzantine Anatolia Although the area north of Aleppo (northern Syria) had been a thriving center of olive cultivation and olive oil production, those industries declined because Syria was cut off from its markets with the Byzantine Empire Further, the area east of the Ar Raqqah– Damascus–Aqaba axis had been a center for grape cultivation and wine manufacture It too saw a downturn as a result of the loss of the export market and the Muslim prohibition of alcohol In addition, economic activity from Christian pilgrimages to Palestine declined From an economic perspective, therefore, the Muslim conquest brought prosperity to Iran and economic decline in Syria and Egypt and had a mixed impact on Mesopotamia or Iraq Taxation of Conquered Populations Conquering Muslims typically made treaties with local notables, which protected the property and social status of the elites in exchange for payment of tribute (or taxes) These treaties built on existing taxation systems, with a local chief or prince serving as the point person for the new regime in collecting owed taxes In this way the Muslim military leaders did not have to deal directly with individuals and had in place a class of people called awan—helpers who would be in charge of dealing with locals and intervene in disputes A system emerged wherein the awan underestimated taxes owed to Muslim rulers, overestimated them to subjects, and retained the difference—a practice that was known and tolerated Conquered populations were subjected to a land tax and a poll tax The land tax and poll tax were broadly considered revenues from fay, or immobile booty Ghanima, or movable booty, was seized by conquering armies and distributed as they moved along The land tax rate depended on the quality and productivity of the land and its distance from the market, among other factors The tax was levied on the amount of land that one man working with one team of animals could be expected to work in one day The poll tax was levied on the entire population and then subdivided among villagers Payment in gold coins was expected The tax originated from the Koran: “Fight those who not believe in Allah and the last day and not forbid what Allah and His messenger have forbidden and not practice the religion of truth, from among those who have been given the book, until they pay jizya out of hand, in a state of humiliation.” This last instruction often took the form of a blow to the back of the head, as the appointed local leader handed over the required number of gold coins to the Muslim administrator The economic consequences of this taxation system were significant In some cases taxes reached nearly half the value of agricultural output Taxes limited the attention farmers could give to the soil and the level of investment required to maintain agricultural productivity Even the choice of which crops to plant was influenced by tax considerations The tax burden was such that Egypt experienced several revolts by its Coptic peasants in 697, 712, and 725 to 726, indications that resistance to the system as well as to Muslim rule lasted many decades after the conquest Ultimately, many peasants fled their lands and homes The tax system reflected a person’s place in society Peasants, workers, and merchants paid taxes Landowners, administrators, clergymen, soldiers, and emperors collected them To pay the land and poll taxes was not only an economic burden but also a sign of social inferiority Another form of taxation was the farm tax: in this scheme, a tract of land was assigned to an individual who agreed to pay the caliphate a fixed sum (usually 10 percent) in exchange for the right to tax the peasantry at the land tax rate (up to 50 percent of the value of the agricultural output) The difference was retained by the person assigned the farm Such persons were often members of the military who had served the caliphate and were thus rewarded with land grants Self-interest, class interest, and clientage thus helped implement this system of taxation For local elites the system permitted landowning families to send sons to the central government in Baghdad to act as administrators and merchant families to broaden the reach of their trade by setting up offices in Baghdad For the unfortunate peasants inability to pay these taxes left them with two options: They could convert to Islam or see their children sold off in slavery Economy under (1038–1194) the Seljuk Empire After the breakup of the caliphate in the 11th century, the Islamic Empire lost its central government in Baghdad, despite the newly formed Seljuk regime’s best efforts to reinstate it The empire was too far-flung and complex, and large landowners were primarily military and thus disaffected from the needs of agricultural production The system of tax administration was still in place, but taxes were paid to slave governors or local Seljuk rulers The lack of clear succession—the legacy of a nomadic heritage—permitted the subdivision and fragmentation of large parts of the empire, thus subverting any consolidation into a central administration The notion of a Muslim empire rested increasingly on its understanding of Islam itself