80 architecture: The Islamic World design gardens that resembled Koranic descriptions of paradise gardens (Ferdows) These gardens still followed the pattern of the Achaemenid garden at Pasargadae, in which a pavilion was located above a fourfold planted garden with a pool in the center and trees and flowers planted in rectangular form The gardens not only worked as spaces for pleasure but also acted as permanent components of architecture Later, in the Timurid and Safavid periods, gardens were designed to shape urban areas, such as streets, squares, and whole cities Although the same pattern was more or less exported to all Islamic territories, the elements of the garden, such as arrangement of trees, ornamentation, contents, and scale, were based primarily on local traditions While Mughal gardens in India and Kashmir included large unplanted areas with plenty of local fountains, the gardens in Morocco and Spain were smaller, with a pool in center In addition, Mughal Indians replaced pavilions in gardens with mausoleums Two most famous examples of gardens in Islamic territories are the Hasht-Bihisht garden in Isfahan and the Taj Mahal in Agra Muslims also used gardens as places for producing plants, medical herbs, flowers, and fruits Markets and Caravansaries After the establishment of Islam, Prophet Muhammad made specific regulations to recover trade in Arab society and to decrease the disparity between the wealth of classes within the society Based on these regulations, collecting wealth without considering others’ benefit was prohibited At the same time, lawful and decent trade was strongly supported in order to improve the quality of life within society In the Islamic world the construction of markets, which might have had roots in the Byzantine and Parthian empires, facilitated international trade for people in various regions In addition, the role of the Islamic countries, such as Persia and Turkey, as important sections of the Silk Road; the importance of travel as a tool of learning for Muslims; and the significance of the pilgrimage in Islam encouraged governments to create markets and caravansaries to facilitate trade and financial contacts in the whole region The typology of caravansaries was the result of climatic circumstances, except in mountainous areas, and an enclosed plan with a central courtyard (probably with adjacent buildings, each with a central courtyard) was used The caravansaries outside cities served as hostels for travelers and tradesmen, whereas the caravansaries inside cities functioned within markets as places to accommodate travelers and to sell merchandise The structure of markets was based on the organization of trades and crafts (guilds) Merchandise of a particular type was sold in a specific caravansary or shop- ping center or shopping street Moreover, the structure of the bazaar was based on an organization to provide maximum security, especially for high-ranking businesses or expensive crafts Markets became the backbones of Islamic cities, serving as the main circulation streets within cities and as connectors between important neighborhoods In small towns the markets were close to the one or two gates to the town, while in larger cities the markets were placed in the center of the city In large cities the markets were connected to the main civic centers in which temporary and occasional exhibitions were held to sell certain merchandise or in which social gatherings and administrative activities were conducted Houses The residential architecture in the medieval Islamic world included private houses located in cities and villages and caravansaries located inside cities or as isolated buildings outside cities and villages The plan of caravansaries was climate oriented, and in hot and dry areas the four-iwan plan was applied, in which rooms were located around a rectangular or square central courtyard Except in nonarid areas, the private houses included a central courtyard around which rooms were located In accordance with Islamic instructions regarding the importance of guests, the largest and most decorated rooms were allocated to guests The designs of houses stressed interior spaces, while the exterior of a house was designed in a very humble way without any fancy ornamentation Generally, the size and complexity of houses depended on the wealth of their owners Houses owned by rich people were sometimes complexes of several houses occupied by relatives in a large family In these cases the houses were expanded and developed based upon the family relations among the occupants The spaces inside houses were arranged in a way to provide the greatest privacy for residents (against visitors), especially for the women Additionally, the size and location of rooms were based on the hierarchy of the residents in the family The garden located in the center of the courtyard, with trees and flowers and a central pool, was a symbol of paradise that practically improved air circulation inside the houses Architects and Construction Architects in Islamic countries were usually specialists in calculation and design and were innovative and imaginative in conception and structure In most cases, occupations related to art and architecture were family heritages Construction, whether done by Muslims or non-Muslims, was considered a sacred process, in which architects and craftsmen took advantage of their faith in order to create a transcendental architecture For this reason, except in a few cases, the names of architects did not appear on their buildings The movement