32 agriculture: Europe In southern Europe and the Mediterranean region the demands of a different climate gave rise to different methods of working and dividing productive land Less rainfall and drier summers made it necessary to retain moisture in the soil Thus, shallow and less frequent plowing was done with the iron ard, a smaller and lighter version of the moldboard plow that broke up the soil without digging a furrow Many fields in the south were enclosed, with farmers working a small number of larger plots as well as orchards Communal farming was rare, in contrast to northern Europe, and most plots of land were owned and worked by individual families Throughout southern Europe vines and olives were important crops, along with wine grapes, which in medieval times ranged over a larger region of Europe than in modern times In Spain, which was conquered and settled by the Islamic Moors from the eighth century, new crops imported from North Africa and the Middle East included rice, cotton, and citrus fruits The introduction of Merino sheep made Spanish wool among the finest in Europe One legacy of sheep raising in Spain was a powerful union of shepherds known as the Mesta, which was in frequent conflict with farmers over use of land, migratory routes, and grazing rights In areas where the manorial system was in force, peasants owed a percentage of their harvest (often half) to the local noble and exchanged their labor for the use of the land and the lord’s protection against sieges, assaults, and highway thieves Many villages also paid a tithe of one-tenth of their harvest to the church The bailiff collected the rents and supervised the work and lives of the peasants (Some lords held the right to prevent their laborers from moving to a residence or marrying a spouse outside the village.) The peasants worked a set number of days (often three every week) on land held directly by the lord and supplied labor when canals, ditches, or wells had to be dug or roads or mills built The manorial system endured for centuries with little change The local nobles provided the only authority and security known to most rural peasants, who rarely left their isolated villages and for whom moving any distance in search of better conditions or work was unthinkable Without urban markets for crops, production remained low; the peasants subsisted on what they could grow and had no motivation to produce a surplus or plant new crops In addition, a scarcity of coin forced many rural communities to operate on a barter system for tools, household goods, and food In the later medieval period, as a network of roads and new long-distance trading routes developed, production increased and city squares provided new marketplaces for the sale of produce and farm goods Such weekly markets in the central square have survived in many European towns An increase in production allowed some peasants to buy or bar- ter for additional lands and thus accumulate a store of money and property These relatively wealthy peasants could lease fertile land and pasture to tenants Those without means could hire themselves out as laborers or servants or take up crafts like smithing, toolmaking, or carpentry Spring Plowing and Planting Medieval farming communities were the scene of frequent negotiation over duties, particularly over the share of labor to be borne in the seasons of plowing, planting, and harvesting For rural peasants the year began in the spring with the return of fair weather and the greening of fields and forests after the last winter frosts The planting season began when the soil thawed and could be turned easily by the plow A plowman directed the big teams of oxen, which were replaced in later times by horses The moldboard positioned behind the plowshare turned the soil over after it was broken Spring crops included barley, oats, legumes, peas, and vetches (plants grown for forage or as animal feed) Winter crops, such as wheat, were already growing where they had been planted the previous fall Seed was scattered by hand, and sometimes various crops were mixed together in a single field Peas and beans were planted carefully in shallow holes, dug by a narrow stick Each kind of seed was planted in an ideal density, which would prevent the field from being choked by weeds or by too many plants of the crop being planted After seed was planted, it was harrowed (covered with soil) The harrow, made of bundles of sticks or built from a wooden frame, was dragged over the field; the peasants used hammers or mallets to break up large clods of soil The young crop then had to be defended It was a common task of peasant children to chase crows and other predators from the fields (taking care not to harm any of the lord’s private game or doves) The days between plowing and harvest were not idle Rural peasants had to repair hedges and fences, dig ditches and wells, tend to their homes and gardens, maintain tools, care for stock animals, and provide the lord with obligatory service Women were responsible for home care, sewing clothes, storage of dried crops and herbs, tending kitchen gardens, preserving meat, milking cows and goats, churning butter, making cheese, and slaughtering chickens and pigs for meals Summer Labors The hot summer months were reserved for making hay in the communal pastures Hay was used as animal feed, and a good hay crop meant a steady supply of meat and milk through the winter months Medieval haymakers used long wooden scythes to mow, with women following to move and turn the hay to make sure it dried evenly The hay was bundled