Encyclopedia of society and culture in the ancient world ( PDFDrive ) 863

790 nomadic and pastoral societies: The Middle East Some of the earliest evidence for nomadic pastoralism in the region comes from the central Zagros Mountains (in modern-day Iran) Archaeological finds of temporary campsites in marginal ecological zones unsuitable for agriculture and of isolated cemeteries along seasonal migratory routes far from permanent settlements are examples of such evidence Moreover, historical texts from early urban centers in the general vicinity attest to social, economic, and political relations—and sometimes battle—with nomadic groups in the Zagros by the mid-fourth millennium b.c.e Much research has focused on explaining how nomadic pastoralism emerged as a new way of living out of villagebased herding in the Zagros region Traditional views on this subject theorized a direct transition from agropastoralism to highly mobile nomadic pastoralism However, recent investigations have demonstrated that the shift occurred in several intermediate stages before arriving at an economy emphasizing nomadic pastoralism by the fourth millennium b.c.e Besides the spread of seasonal camps and isolated cemeteries like those already mentioned, the archaeological evidence includes a reduction in the number of permanent settlements and the broad distribution of small quantities of distinctive pottery at sites throughout the west-central Zagros, perhaps reflecting far-flung trade associated with increasing mobility The archaeological evidence also indicates growing interaction between the west-central Zagros and the lowlands to the west and southwest in the late fift h and fourth millennia b.c.e As pastoral groups moved down to the lowlands in the winter months, they would have come into contact with settled farming communities and formed trading relationships Archaeologists believe that economic exchange was a significant and mutually beneficial aspect of nomad-villager relations Villagers received animal products and raw materials from the mountains in exchange for agricultural goods that the nomads lacked owing to their highly specialized economy Manufactured items, especially pottery, also would have been exchanged—as would ideas, styles, and other cultural information Nomadic pastoralists may have served as intermediaries in longer-distance trade connecting different regions The economic ties forged between highland pastoralists and settled villagers may have contributed to the development of social complexity on a regional scale During the late fifth and fourth millennia b.c.e a number of sites in southern Mesopotamia and southwestern Iran began to exhibit signs of increasing socioeconomic and political complexity (for example, monumental architecture, urban planning, and the use of seals to regulate certain economic activities) that eventually led to the rise of early states Mobile pastoralist populations in the Zagros may have helped to urbanize their neighbors to the southwest by, among other things, stimulating local economies through surplus production and trade The rising urban demand for animal products and raw materials would have encouraged pastoralists to intensify production and exchange, strengthening economic ties between both groups The growing economic interdependence between nomadic pastoral so- cieties and early towns may have influenced such sociopolitical developments of the following millennia as the control of production and distribution of goods by centralized institutions, the emergence of inequalities in wealth and status, and the formation of a shared social identity among nomadic groups Meanwhile, the construction of forts along the foothills of the Zagros by early Mesopotamian state societies indicates that relations with the nomads were not always amicable Far southwest of the Zagros, nomadic pastoralism may have also appeared in the “marginal” environments of the Negev and Sinai and nearby desert/steppe zones of what are today Jordan, Syria, western Iraq, and northwestern Saudi Arabia However, scholars disagree as to whether prehistoric nomadic pastoralism could have existed in this region, and if so, when it began Some argue that nomadic pastoralism arose in the mid-seventh millennium b.c.e.; they point to the spread of new forms of material culture beyond areas favorable for intensive agriculture and into marginal zones during this time Archaeological evidence of this migration includes distinctive stone tools, architectural remains such as stone circles and circle complexes, rock art, and a rise in sheep and goat herding, possibly in response to the declining numbers of wild gazelles Moreover, the growing numbers and size of sites in desert/steppe areas appear to reflect close symbiotic relations between nomadic groups and their settled neighbors in the agricultural zone After their first incursions into these marginal lands the nomadic pastoralists spread rapidly throughout the region over the next few millennia, culminating in the conquest of southern Mesopotamia by the Akkadians in the late third millennium b.c.e Other researchers doubt that pure nomadic pastoralism in this region dates to the mid-seventh millennium b.c.e Some argue that a nomadic pastoral economy could have arisen only after milk and wool began to be systematically exploited in the fourth millennium b.c.e Some suggest that earlier systems could have been cases of transhumant, rather than purely nomadic, pastoralism (However, archaeologists also diverge in their estimates of when transhumant pastoralism began.) Finally, some scholars question whether these marginal lands could have sustained a pastoral nomadic system in prehistory In historical times nomadic groups who migrated into the region from other areas usually shifted to other forms of pastoralism to diversify their economy According to this viewpoint, pure nomadic pastoralism was possible only after dromedaries were domesticated in Arabia in the late third millennium b.c.e and spread across the desert environments of the Near East by the early first millennium b.c.e Historical texts and archaeological materials from ancient Near Eastern empires attest to the presence of nomadic groups both within and on their borders When the Romans began their conquest of the Near East, they faced a longestablished network of interaction and interdependence among settled and nomad populations These nomadic groups practiced different types of mobile pastoralism,