drama and theater: Europe bodia through the union of the daughter of a dragon king and the Indian Brahmin Kaudinya The Mahabharata and especially the Ramayana also proved popular in Java (in modern-day Indonesia) The Javanese variations to the story can still be seen in Bali, though the most popular theater there has long been connected with the mythological Barong, the “king of the spirits.” In Southeast Asia, Vietnam was an exception because it drew more heavily from Chinese stories Japan had similar traditions of extensive formalized performances for the court and wandering teams giving theatrical performances in towns and villages throughout the country The earliest surviving Japanese theatrical scripts date to the 300s c.e Throughout the Pacific, Polynesian theater and drama often had the same themes as some of those in Asia but tended to focus more on long sea voyages, floods, the coming of “strange” peoples, and other related historical themes In most cases these stories have come down to the present day in oral tradition Unlike the tales of the great cultures of Asia those of the Aborigines of Australia essentially focus on the environment and geography instead of history The Aboriginal “dreamtime” stories, which have been passed down in tribes over 40,000 years, tend to relate to providing explanations for land features They explain how particular mountains or rivers formed, the color of natural features, and the seasons As the oldest surviving culture in the world, the Aboriginals, with their nonhierarchical society, seem to show that the origins of drama and theater lie in something like their corroborees, festivities at which they gather, sometimes from considerable distances, to celebrate important occasions with (usually nocturnal) songs and dancing, both often having complex geographical themes EUROPE BY MICHAEL J O’NEAL For a number of reasons very little is known about drama, theater, and performance arts in ancient Europe One reason is the low rate of literacy among the ancient Europeans In contrast to ancient Greece, Rome, China, and other cultures, the civilizations of ancient Europe produced few people who could read and write, with the result that literature was transmitted orally rather than in written form Another problem was the social disruption caused by war, conquest, and migrations The ancient Celts, for example, migrated westward, probably from western Russia, and became the dominant culture of central Europe The Celts, though, were conquered by the Germanic and Scandinavian peoples from the north while at the same time feeling pressure on the south from the Roman Empire, which used its power to eradicate cultures and customs in the conquered territories (Much of what little drama and theater is known from ancient Europe existed only because of the Romans.) Under these conditions, it would be surprising if much in the way of an indigenous dramatic literature survived 333 Much of what historians know, or theorize, is based on fragmentary evidence, hints, and inferences, but it is likely that performance art in ancient Europe paralleled that in other parts of the world, where the record is more complete For example, a good deal of performance art was probably conducted as part of ritual religious observances Among the Druids, the religion of the ancient Celts, priests and shamans controlled the ritual observances of the people and were often regarded as having magical powers They also functioned as teachers for the community These priests conducted ritual observances, often in conjunction with such events as the equinoxes and solstices Like most northern cultures, the Celts saw the arrival of spring or of the shortest days of winter as important events, recognized in communal ritual celebrations (celebrations that gave rise to many modern traditions surrounding such holidays as Christmas and Halloween) It is likely that these communal celebrations took on features of a dramatic performance One form of performance art that probably was widely practiced was the reading or recitation of myths, legends, and epic poems Historians know that a considerable number of such works of literature existed, though how many were written down is anybody’s guess, for few texts survive and even those are mostly fragments It is known, however, that many later European epics—from Scandinavia, the Germanic peoples, and the Celts—preserved literary traditions, characters, and story lines from centuries before Most of these works were transmitted orally, passed down from one generation of storytellers to another Thus it is likely that some medieval narratives were developments of narratives from the ancient world A good example is the Edda, a group of medieval folktales from Old Norse mythology whose origins no doubt extend into the mists of the ancient past The role of the bard, or oral storyteller, was not acquired in a haphazard fashion The performance of these tales, myths, and legends was conducted for the aristocracy, and the bards constituted the libraries and museums of the time, guarding the culture Most bards underwent intensive training for their role, and over time they acquired a repertoire of tales, including tales about feasts, deaths, adventures, cattle raids, battles, and visions One example of a relatively complete text that may have served as the script for a dramatic performance is the Skírnismál, a Scandinavian love poem of uncertain date but generally believed to have been written in pre-Christian times The poem is set in dramatic form, with dialogue between the characters The basic plot is simple: Freyr dispatches his servant Skírnir to court for him the maiden Gerdr, the daughter of Gymir, a giant Skírnir promises gifts, but to no avail, so he finally uses threats to persuade Gerdr to meet Freyr in the grove called Barri, where the two will be married Some scholars believe that the Skírnismál is a surviving example of a flourishing tradition of ritual Scandinavian drama from pre-Christian days It is believed that performers created effigies of gods and goddesses for use in these pro-