education: Europe Yue ware water dropper in the shape of a frog drinking from a cup, from Zhejiang Province, southern China, Six Dynasties, third to fourth century c.e.; such items were made for the scholar’s desk and used in calligraphy (© The Trustees of the British Museum) who would be more loyal to the state than the hereditary nobility was Consequently, the ancient curriculum consisted largely of Confucian philosophy and ethics Professors were experts in the Confucian Five Classics, which included works on history, rituals, poetry, and divination (foretelling the future or discovering hidden knowledge through omens) Confucian philosophy emphasized loyalty to the state above all Students also studied mathematics, music, and painting among other subjects Confucius thought that all social classes should be educated, even the poor As a practical matter, most of the poor did not have the time or the resources to go to school, so most boys who went to school came from wealthy families There were nonetheless many exceptions The Han emperors set up their system to find talented boys, not wealthy boys, and this gave many poor young men an opportunity they would not otherwise have had A number of boys from humble backgrounds did rise up through the system to take important jobs high in the governmental bureaucracy As Chinese culture spread throughout eastern Asia, the people in Southeast Asia, Japan, and Korea adopted Chinese educational practices Korea, for example, created an education system during the Three Kingdoms Period (57 b.c.e.–668 c.e.) that was very similar to the Chinese system, with a heavy emphasis on Chinese classics, Confucian philosophy, and preparation for government service In India education was inextricably tied to religion Hindu students were expected to learn Hindu scriptures, rites, and rituals as a preparation for higher knowledge Every student studied with a teacher called a guru In ancient times a guru was considered a god in human form Students were expected to choose a single guru and stay with him until their education was complete To study with a guru, a student would go to a gurukula, a sort of school that was often located 381 in the forest, away from cities and students’ families Entering a gurukula was not easy; a student had to convince the guru that he was serious about wanting to study and that he was intelligent enough to learn the material Gurus believed that there was no point in teaching those who were not interested or mentally capable of learning, and tradition forbade the acceptance of unqualified students Once in the gurukula, students studied the Hindu scriptures, or Vedas, memorizing verses and reciting them in order; a student could not move on to a new verse until he had recited all the preceding verses perfectly Although scriptures were important, students could also study practical subjects such as mathematics, medicine, music, magic, or the art of warfare Discipline was strict and living conditions austere; students had to observe a stringent diet, meditate, practice yoga, remain chaste, and perform menial jobs for the guru Sometimes students traveled with the guru to perform rites When a student finished the several-year course of study, he paid the guru for the instruction Almost all students in gurukulas were boys Girls were not allowed to study; a few royal women were educated, but ordinary women were not For the most part, lower-caste people were not allowed to study either; education was restricted to the upper classes People in lower castes were allowed, however, to receive training in their occupations Members of castes that specialized in various crafts, such as weaving, pottery, or building, would train their children in the traditional practices of their specialty After the fift h century b.c.e Indian students also studied Buddhism Buddhism placed more emphasis on practical living techniques that would pave the way to enlightenment Communities of Buddhist monks and nuns functioned as schools of Buddhism EUROPE BY J USTIN CORFIELD Throughout Europe during ancient times there were formalized systems of childhood education involving parents, relatives, and village elders who taught lessons in farming and hunting and various other adult occupations Indeed, education largely took the form of initiation into adulthood, and this process varied across the continent and gradually changed and adapted over time until the Romans extended their rule over much of western, southern, and central Europe The tradition among Celts was for boys to be handed over to “foster fathers” at the age of seven (as was the case in Ireland) to 10 (as was practiced in Scotland) The foster fathers, often uncles or longtime family friends, were then responsible for the academic, artistic, and physical training of the boys This responsibility was regarded as a great honor, with accounts that in Ireland “five hundred kyne [cattle] and better” were often given for the training of the son of a “great man.” A Celtic youth was supposed to have “four and twenty” skills Among these skills were the “six feats of activity”: hurling weights, running, leaping, swimming, wrestling, and rid-