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142 J Maher et al p 497) While both intrinsic and extrinsic dog ownership may result in harm, there are unique harms inherent in the nature of the extrinsic relationship between owner and companion animal (as detailed earlier) In terms of status dogs, extrinsic harms may be purposeful (intended) or consequential (a consequence of other behaviours) with both having similar, potentially fatal outcomes—for example, while dog fighting often results in a violent death (purposeful), abandonment and aggressive training commonly result in the death of the dog through euthanasia (consequential) Evidence from many status dog owners interviewed by Hughes et al (2011) suggested they were intrinsically motivated by a perceived companionship, loyalty, trust and special, emotional bond However, they also identify their ownership, and that of the majority of peers, as being centrally motivated by enhanced status, profit, protection and entertainment (Hughes et al 2011; see also Maher and Pierpoint 2011) In order words, while companionship is important for some, protection, money and peer acceptance are central motivations for status dog ownership Consequently, status dogs are a form of social7 and economic capital, whereby a youth’s reputation is enhanced by, or even dependent upon, owning and/or breeding status dogs Although enhanced social capital correlates with a decline in deviance (as offenders risk the loss of positive relationships—see Coleman 1988), this is dependent on the relationship being prosocial (Savage and Kanazawa 2002) In the same manner as prosocial relationships are believed to hinder criminality, the development of social capital amongst antisocial peers is likely to increase it Sutherland et al (1992) suggest ‘differential association’ with peers who hold antisocial or criminal values results in youths absorbing these values and behaviours Through adopting these values youths can enhance their status, thereby avoiding ostracism and generating rewards (such as close relationships and social/financial opportunities) Furthermore, antisocial groups develop what subcultural theory terms ‘oppositional culture’, whereby their norms are consciously opposed to those of mainstream society—in this case, with regard to what is an acceptable breed, and the use and treatment of dogs In youth crime and gang literature, oppositional culture is commonly referred to as ‘street culture’ (Anderson 2000), at the centre of which is the need to enhance status and avoid disrespect Status dogs, as the name suggests, Bourdieu (1980, 1986) and Coleman (1988) are commonly credited with the introduction of the concept of social capital—which generally describes the resources gained through social relationships with other humans An absence or weakness in legitimate social relationships has been linked to increased criminality
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